Theo Georgiades

Dramatic irony is a feature of many plays. It occurs when the development of the plot allows the audience to have more insight about what is happening than some of the characters themselves. Iago is the source of much of the dramatic irony in Othello, informing the audience of his intentions. Characters may also speak in a dramatically ironic way, saying something that points to events to come without understanding the significance of their words. The opening scene is laced with dramatic irony, all of which centres on Iago. Roderigo fails to see that a man who admits he is a self-serving conman – â€Å"I am not what I am† – might also be fooling him, and Brabantio is unaware of the aptness of his line â€Å"Thou art a villain†. Iago has exposed himself very early and we watch fascinated as he manipulates others. In Act I, Scene III, we almost admire Othello's â€Å"free and open nature†, as Shakespeare states, but we are worried that Othello is gullible enough to be taken for a ride. His choice to place his wife in Iago's care is frightening, although it shows his high opinions of him. We are given two menacing hints about the future progress of Othello's marriage when the senators leave; Brabantio warns Othello against trusting Desdemona, while the first senator tells Othello to â€Å"use Desdemona well†. These lines are examples of dramatic irony; hints to the audience about the way the plot will develop. In Act III, Scene III, Othello is under pressure from the moment he enters. He is able to order his wife, although he seems nervous throughout his dialogue with her at the start of the scene. There is acknowledgment in his line â€Å"I will deny thee nothing†, as we are very well aware that this line is very true. We might feel that Othello is already on the threshold of disaster, even before Iago's words get to him properly. As Desdemona leaves Othello says â€Å"Excellent wretch [†¦] come again† (see lines III.3.90-2). These lines suggest that Othello will be completely lost if his love is shattered. Note the two words in these lines that hint at the trouble to come: â€Å"perdition† and â€Å"chaos†. The audience will be aware of the dramatic irony of these lines. Also found in Act III; Scene IV is packed with dramatic irony. This sad scene focuses on Desdemona. Emilia's purpose in this scene is to remark on what she sees and hears. She introduces the subject of Othello's jealousy, enabling us to value just how much naive confidence Desdemona has in her husband. We quickly learn that we can rely on her judgement; Emilia accurately guesses that it is jealous thoughts which trouble Othello. Emilia is also intelligent in her description of jealousy; â€Å"It is a monster/Begot upon itself, born on itself†. Later on in the play we will see the excellence of these words. Shakespeare fills this scene with examples of alarming dramatic irony, for example Desdemona's words at lines 25-9 and 30-1. In spite of the fact that she lies to her husband about the loss of the handkerchief, we are likely to feel much sympathy for Desdemona. She does not appreciate the danger she is in, signified by her words at line 30 and is alarmed by her husband's description of the handkerchief and his repeated requests to see it. Shakespeare's play Othello is a play where dramatic irony prevails practically everywhere. The audience is not just an observer, but a kind of judge one might say, having enough information to evaluate the significance of certain words stated by characters that are none the wiser; and can therefore sit back and enjoy the art in the villain's skills aswell the excellence of Shakespeare at play.

Cultural Anthropology Essay

â€Å"The word anthropology is derived from the Greek words anthropo, meaning â€Å"human beings† or â€Å"humankind,† and logia, translated as â€Å"knowledge of† or â€Å"the study of.†1 Likewise, it is a study which comprises four subfields: the physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology and cultural anthropology or ethnology, which constitutes a broad approach to the study of humanity.2 Furthermore, â€Å"Anthropology is the exploration of human diversity in time and space.†3 Consequently, anthropology is a study or discourse of human being which deals human condition in every particular context and time, both past and present. It is a study that deals humans as biological species, as beings with culture and language present in a society, and so on. b. Cultural Anthropology â€Å"Cultural anthropology is the study of human society and culture, the subfield that describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and differences.4 So, it is in this field that human beings are studied in a cultural perspective in order to identify the commonality and difference of one culture to the other. Likewise, â€Å"Cultural anthropology or ethnology is the subfield of anthropology that examines various contemporary societies and cultures throughout the world.†5 Therefore, it does not study human being individually but societally or as a group, in order to come up with a generalization of their way of life. c. Ethnology â€Å"Ethnology examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography—the data gathered in different societies.†6 Likewise, â€Å"ethnology is the comparative science that attempts to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, test hypotheses, and build theory to enhance our understanding of how social and cultural systems work.7 Thus, ethnology is the science in which the data gathered by the cultural anthropologist  from the different societies through observation are put into analysis and examination. In other words, it is a cross-cultural study. By this, cultural anthropologists describe the similarities and differences of one culture from the other and make generalization about society and culture. 2. What are the two approaches we use in the study of Anthropology? There are two ways of developing testable propositions: the inductive method and the deductive method. In the inductive method, the scientist first makes observations and collects data. On the other hand, deductive method of scientific research begins with a general theory from which scientists develop testable hypotheses. Data are then collected to evaluate these hypotheses. 3. Why the study of Anthropology is important today? Studying human beings, Anthropology is very important today for it examines, analyzes, compares and makes generalization about how people live and behave. In fact, it is so vital to study it these days for this field deals not only the present generation of the human kind but also even those of the past, the history and artifacts, with their way of life basically analyzed and is compared to what we have today. Likewise, it is also crucial to discuss this subject matter, especially cultural anthropology, for it gives anybody a kind of self-awareness to cultural diversity. Hence, anthropology will make us aware of cross-cultural understanding in this diverse world and appreciate the uniqueness of one culture to the other. Furthermore, studying so would give us knowledge in order to avoid ethnocentrism or superiority of one culture to the other for no culture is actually higher than the other. On one hand, anthropology contributes to a general liberal arts education, which helps students develop intellectually and personally, as well as professionally.8 So, it is important as well to study anthropology nowadays for it tries to investigate human condition according to four perspectives, namely, the physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology and cultural anthropology, which is needed in every career that one may take. Well, for us, seminarians, I think it is an imperative to have knowledge about this course for it enables us to develop our understanding, especially when it comes to cross-cultural one, as future missionaries to foreign lands  someday.

Machete and Tron Review Essay

In this film Robert Rodriguez decided to pay tribute to B-movies of the 70’s and 80’s (the unsteady zooms, the clumsy edits, the continuity errors between shots), this is very apparent in the genre of the movie, exploitation films include excessive violence, gore, nudity and way too many corny lines. Art Direction wise the film also follows a 70’s 80’s kind of vibe, the cast also reminds us of that era. Costume design is amazing, all characters have a distinct very cartoony costume to them, the cheesiness doesn’t end here, the amount of weapons cannot be accounted for other than all the uzi’s minigun’s etc. etc. our main character can turn any household object, gardening tool or surgical instrument into a weapon of mass destruction! Special Effects are ABSURD (in the good way) what really stuck in my head is when our main Hero guts someone takes his intestines and jumps out a window using them as a rope! The Blood spurts and body parts cut off or crushed aren’t few either. Sound Effects have their parts of cheese; the most memorable one to me was when Torrez (played by Steven Seagal) pulls out his Samurai Sword (the effect is actually from the 1974 movie Six Million Dollar Man). Machete is a film that embodies all of the facets a 1970s blaxploitation film would have, but with the Hispanic culture. This is Mexploitation, with a resonant grindhouse feeling, complete with film reel scratches and fake political ads. But the violence and action in this is so extraordinary and unapologetically gruesome, with the extremity of it all not being taken seriously at all. The things they do in this film, guaranteed you haven’t seen most of them ever done before. Corkscrews, high-heels, weed-whackers, and, of course, machetes, are only a very small listing of all the tools and weapons used to dispatch characters in Machete. It’s over the top, absolutely ridiculous scenes that pop up every five minutes and make for a joyous film experience. There are too many be-headings, blood-splattering gunshots, and limb removals to count†¦. Don’t even get me started on the stabbings. The end Battle climaxes the gore, blood, and absurdity of the film. I’m going to get more in some of the Characters; Danny Trejo, the star of Machete, has a face that’s so rough, craggy, and etched with hard living that it’s like a natural rock formation. With a tattooed torso as thick as a refrigerator, and long oily black hair that frames his simmering coal-fire eyes, Trejo, like Mickey Rourke, is a freakishly hypnotic camera subject. Depending on which angle he’s shot from, he can look like the world’s toughest biker, a Native American shaman, or a very angry carp. As Machete (pronounced †ma-chet-ay†), Trejo is so badass he’s funny. Yet the movie, codirected by Robert Rodriguez and Ethan Maniquis, never treats him like a joke. When he slashes people with his machete, which he favors because he’s a true warrior (as opposed to the wimps who hide behind their guns), he’s an unholy ethnic avenger out of a ’70s walking-tall fantasy. Robert De Niro plays the role of Senator John McLaughlin; the character is your typical jackass Texas cowboy senator. Sartana Rivera is you basic torn cop that is realizing that some laws shouldn’t be enforced because they are just laws, Jessica Alba fits well in this role. In a side note her Nude shower scene was a fake she was digitally stripped naked, it was a decision she and Robert Rodriguez made together, which would serve his vision for the film, as well as honor her personal convictions regarding nudity. Torrez played by Steven Seagal , is a drug lord portrayed as if he thinks of himself as a Samurai, he even has his own Katana (the samurai Sword) Michelle Rodriguez plays the Role of Luz, at first she looks pretty normal but in the end scene she is reincarnated as the Mythical â€Å"SHE† leather pants, small top, eye patch and one hell of a Machine gun. Lindsay Lohan shines as April Booth, daughter of Michael Booth, she has 2 costumes in the hole film first one is, well, being Naked!!!! And the second is a full dressed Nun that surely comes with a Machine gun! Cheech Marin plays as Padre Cortez, your favored pastor; he uses 2 shotguns to blow off people’s heads off. Tron: Legacy Put together the old Tron with reminiscent Skintight suits with neon like lines that glow, new tech machinery called Light Runners, and some new and improved Light cycles(new gen Bikes)created out of sticks, think about the film score and music and you realize that it should be done by Daft Punk, I guess Kosinski realized this early on because when he was asked why he ecided to have Daft Punk do the film score, he replied, â€Å"How could you not at least go to those guys? †. The score is a mix of orchestral and electronic elements, this fits right on with the artistic feel of the movie. Daft Punk have created a sonic masterpiece worthy of the legacy of Tron. Their brilliant layering of ambient electronica with orchestral symphonics is every bit as avant garde in creating atmospheric digital soundscapes as Wendy Carlos’ score was for the origin al Tron. I only wish that they had incorporated some more of Wendy’s memorable themes. You can kind of hear a few familiar notes that recalls Tron’s theme in â€Å"Adagio For Tron† but that’s pretty much the only hat tip to Wendy’s vintage score. Like the film itself, Daft Punk have taken the music of Tron to a whole new aesthetic level by incorporating their unique style of techno synthpop along with their influences of electronic film composers like Vangelis on â€Å"Arrival† to the ominous Carpenter-esque â€Å"C. L. U. † and synthesizing them with traditional orchestral composers like Bernard Hermann and Max Steiner. â€Å"The Grid† is the only track with any words put to the music. With Jeff Bridges providing a voiceover for the first half of the track, the song acts as an introduction for anyone who may have missed the first film. As â€Å"The Grid† fades out and â€Å"The Son Of Flynn† opens with an arpeggiated synthesizer, listeners get their first taste of Daft Punks blend between their own unique sound and classical music. Although the majority of the tracks on â€Å"Tron: Legacy† utilize an excellent balance between the two styles, some of the tracks sway one way or the other, drastically changing the mood of the piece. Tracks like â€Å"The Game Has Changed† offer an almost exclusively classical instrumentation while transforming the percussion section into a series of powerful electronic hits, rattling the eardrums and taking focus off of the ominous strings hidden beneath. Although the London Philharmonic Orchestra provides all of the string arrangements, their true feature comes on â€Å"Adagio for Tron. † Sounding a bit like Hans Zimmer’s â€Å"Hummel Gets the Rockets† from the soundtrack for â€Å"The Rock,† Thomas Bangalter and Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo of Daft Punk use his track as a means of showing off their prowess with orchestration, complete with a simple, yet beautiful cello solo. As the mood darkens, the music dives deeper into the electronic realm while still maintaining at least some aspects of a symphonic orchestra. Tracks like â€Å"End of Line† pull entirely from the electronic realm except for a sustained string part which would typica lly get lost in a Daft Punk mix, but because of their extraordinary presence on the rest of the album, they remain surprisingly noticeable.

Issues in Multicultural Britain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Issues in Multicultural Britain - Essay Example The conclusion of the Second World War in 1945 hastened a level of cultural interaction and immigration into many Western nations that had not previously been seen. Much of this immigration and increased cultural interaction was the result of the fact that tens of thousands of individuals were force to seek work elsewhere or move from the destroyed regions that they had previously lived. In his text ‘Multiculturalism: A Civic Idea’ Modood (2007) stresses the importance of education in shaping multiculturalism in the modern society. This paper examines the prospects of multiculturalism with the impending changes to the national curriculum. The need for change is contingent upon some of the issues that have been represented within England over the past few decades. Ultimately, the nation is experiencing something of a tribalized level of development; with certain ethnic, racial, or religious groups seemingly existing within the periphery of English life and not actively vi ewing themselves as a functional part of it. This creates a serious issue both for the society’s development and for the way in which multicultural can be effected or considered as an overall success. Within this understanding, stakeholders within government and education have determined that the most effective way of correcting this would be to focus a higher level of emphasis on engaging multicultural norms and forms of appreciation within the educational structure; as a means of integrating with the societal stakeholder as they are young and explaining the importance of this as a means of forming a more cohesive yet individualized nation. For a long time since it came to the fore in the 1940s, multiculturalism has been presented as a positive feature of national societies. Countries and even cities have proudly presented themselves as being multi-cultural or even metropolitan; this represents part of a wider ideology referred to as multiculturalism (UNESCO, 2003). During the past

Ricardos Theory of Comparative Advantage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ricardos Theory of Comparative Advantage - Essay Example Ricardo's Theory of Comparative Cost states that trade helps two parties - whether individuals or countries - if they focus on the production of the commodity in which they have a comparative advantage, and then trade that one for the commodity for which they do not have a comparative advantage. A country has an absolute advantage if it can produce all goods cheaper than another country. Even a country which has an absolute advantage should not produce all goods. It should concentrate on the production of that commodity in which it has a comparative advantage, and exchange it for the goods it needs - produced by other countries. These countries would be producing those goods in which it has the least comparative disadvantage, and overall consumption and satisfaction would thus be maximized. Ricardo used the example of England and Portugal producing wine and corn to explain the theory. Portugal finds it easier to produce wine instead of cloth although it can produce both cheaper than England does. England produces cloth relatively easier than it does wine, although the cost of production for both are more than when they are produced in Portugal. In this scenario it is beneficial for both countries if Portugal produces only wine, which it can do with relative ease, and England produces only cloth, in which industry it reduces its costs. Portugal trades its excess wine for England's cloth. (David Ricardo and Comparative Cost) Let us assume that one worker in Portugal can produce 8 yards of cloth or 8 gallons of wine, in a year; and one worker in England can produce 8 yards of cloth or 4 gallons of wine. Portugal has an absolute advantage in wine production, as compared to England. In cloth production, both countries are equal. However, England has a relative advantage in cloth production as against wine, when compared to Portugal. Situation 1 Both the countries have no trade. Both countries have ten thousand workers each. The production possibilities would be as follows. Portugal has 5000 workers producing wine and 5000 producing cloth. Then Portugal produces 40,000 (8 * 5000) yards of cloth, and 40,000 (8* 5000) gallons of wine. If England had 5000 workers producing wine and 5000 producing cloth then it would produce 40,000 (8* 5000) yards of cloth and 20,000 (4* 5000) gallons of wine. There is no trade, and the economies exist independently. However, total production for both economies would be 60,000 gallons of wine and 80000 yards of cloth. Situation 2: Now, let us suppose that Portugal puts all its workers in producing wine, and England puts all its workers in cloth. Then Portugal will produce 80,000 gallons of wine, and England would produce 80,000 yards of cloth. Situation 3: If England produced only wine, and Portugal only cloth, then the total wine production would be 40000 gallons and cloth production would be 80, 000 yards. Production is maximized in Situation 2, which is the one in which England has a relative advantage in the production of cloth. Ricardo's theory was a strong argument in favor of free trade, although the model was rather a simplistic one. Some of the assumptions it made do not correspond to the real world situation. It is assumed that full employment exists in the countries, and that opportunity costs are constant. Full mobility of factors of production within a country, and immobility across borders are assumed. Surely, it's not as easy

Research Project A Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Research Project A - Essay Example r critically evaluates the international integration of globalisation in international business strategy and posits that ultimately any entry mode strategy for business ultimately requires a subjective risk assessment from the business perspective going forward. Additionally, the synchronisation of a corporate strategy that understands the local market as well as local strategic alliances is vital to the success of international business growth strategy. In supporting this proposition regarding international integration in international business expansion strategy, this paper contextually examines the example of foreign companies exploiting the market liberalisation of China in attracting foreign direct investment. The integration of the globalisation phenomenon into business with the increased movement of capital and commodities has had a significant impact on international business strategy (Tomlinson, 1999). The most common definition of globalisation encompasses the political and cultural and social economic aspects of regional and local territories, which integrate and have become interconnected via contemporary global methods of information exchange (Croucher, 2004). Additionally, Held and McGrew argue that globalisation represents the interconnectedness of states, societies and culture, which has thereby propelled global trade, ideas and capital (Held & McGrew, 1999). Furthermore, it is submitted that integration of globalisation in international business has primarily impacted entry mode strategies as part of international business expansion. For example, a common corporate vehicle utilised for international expansion in business is the Multinational Enterprises (MNE), which are essentially firms that â€Å"own and control income generating assets in more than one country† (Andersson, 1991: 3). As such, MNEs are often associated with foreign direct investment, which Andersson posits is linked with advantages of ownership and â€Å"internalisation along

Bank of America Corporation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 26000 words

Bank of America Corporation - Research Paper Example For this report, Bank of America may be referred to as â€Å"BofA† and other identifying names for the financial institution. Bank of America and its subsidiaries serves individual consumers, small and middle market businesses, large corporations, and governments. The firm offers a full range of banking, investing, asset management, and other financial and risk management products and services. Bank of America provides services through its subsidiaries (banks) and nonbanking subsidiaries around the world through six primary business segments: Deposits, Global Card Services, Home Loans & Insurance, Global Commercial Banking, Global Banking & Markets (GBAM), and Global Wealth & Investment Management (GWIM). As of December 31, 2010 Bank of America had approximately $2.3 trillion in assets and approximately 288,000 full-time employees. The bank serves approximately 57 million consumers in 5,900 banks, 18,000 ATMs, a network of national call centers, and through online and mobile b anking platforms. Bank of America has over 80% of the domestic banking market and operates in more than 40 countries around the world. On January 1, 2009, Bank of America acquired Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc. (Merrill Lynch) as a result the Bank of America became one of the largest wealth management businesses in the world with nearly 17,000 wealth advisors, an additional 3,000 investment advisors, and more than $2.2 trillion in client assets. The company has the No. 1 market share of U.S. retail deposits, is the No. 1 issuer of debit cards in the United States, No. 2 in credit card products in United States, and the No. 1 credit card issuer in Europe. Bank of America Home Loans is the No. 1 residential mortgage servicer and the No. 2 residential mortgage loan originator in the United States with 5,300 mortgage loan officers nationwide. Mission and Vision Mission Statement: The Mission Statement is the foundational philosophy and principles that a company is built on. The Statement usu ally reflects the values and beliefs of the founder(s) of the company. Over time the founding statement may change due to evolution of the company, however the essence of the original values still permeate through the modern day statement of mission for the company. Finding Bank of America’s mission statement was marred in a number of non-descriptive statements, fundamentally the stated mission is to be the â€Å"World’s Most Admired Company† (Bank of America â€Å"Executive Summary 1). Coupled with the philosophy which states â€Å" We believe very simply that it is the action of individuals working together that build strong communities and that business has an obligation to support those acts in the communities it serves† the bank is describing itself and its purpose for existing (Bank of America â€Å"Executive Summary 2). Notably, another statement reflects Bank of America’s commitment to consumers and acknowledges the responsibility of bein g supportive of customer needs and goals. Our mission is to provide you with an outstanding member/Customer benefit that helps you meet your organization's objectives. We work very hard to understand your objectives, then create a program that can help you meet them. Whether you want to attract new members, retain existing ones, drive incremental sales, or reinforce member or brand loyalty, we will work with you to help you achieve those goals. (Bank of America â€Å"Executive Summary† 1) The bank’s philosophy is: The company slogan is â€Å"Changing the Way You Do Business† (Bank of America â€Å"Executive Summary 2). Theoretically, the underlying motivation of the company’s can be seen in the philosophy. The slogan is a clear offshoot of

Service operations management-Porcinis Pronto Assignment

Service operations management-Porcinis Pronto - Assignment Example This will be implemented through the limited menu that values the products and services at moderate or appropriate prices. The company has limited resources and also capabilities that are needed in establishing an effective and efficient brand presence. Hence, it is very challenging to initiate the brand power strategy, and also enhance the market growth and development. There is a dilemma in making a decision on which brand approach will be effective in both the domestic market and the international market. The brand to be decided on depends on ownership category that is either syndication or alternatively franchising. The main aim of the most appropriate ownership model is to propel the effectiveness of the organizational brand. Appropriately integrating the interests of organizational stakeholders is a challenging experience for the management of the organization. In the new business venture, the company must strive to maintain its core value of excellent food, and hence the quality of the services and the food products must be above board. The high standards of the organization is illustrated through the performance determining factors like, adequate pricing, high service, quality food products, appropriate branding, and suitable business venues. The campaign initiative aims at ensuring the business performance achieves a minimum of 6% of the hu rdle rate of the company. This performance can be achieved through majorly concentrating on quality improvement approaches (Heskett & Luecke, 2011). Several approaches are adopted to ensure the effectiveness of the Porcini’s Pronto brand, and also improve the operations of the company through approaches like expansion. The food service business was initiated in 2010. The outlets of the company are placed strategically along the interstate highway. The outlet locations are very suitable for attracting the travelling customers who desire high standards of food products and also food service. The locations are

Difference between void contracts and voidable contracts Assignment

Difference between void contracts and voidable contracts - Assignment Example Voidable contract is a form of valid contract where all the four essential elements of a contract are present. According to Cross and Miller (2011, p. 752), a voidable contract is a contract which might be â€Å"legally avoided (canceled, or annulled) at the option of one of the parties.† In more generalized sense, the party/parties having the option to avoid the contract can avoid the contract altogether. Otherwise, they can also select which contractual duty is to be avoided. However, there is a process of ratification. If the contract is ratified by the contracting parties, then even a voidable contract will become strictly enforceable. Firstly, void contracts are itself a category of contracts. But voidable contracts are a subcategory of valid contracts. Secondly, void contracts are no contracts at all. However, voidable contracts are strictly enforceable contracts once they are ratified by the contracting parties. Thirdly, a void contract can never have all the four essential contractual elements in it. For example, if the element of consideration be missing in a contract, then that contract can be deemed as a void contract. However, this is not the case with voidable contracts. A voidable contract has all the four essential contractual elements in it 1. Suppose, A and B sign a contract on dealership of cannabis. However, selling or buying cannabis is banned in the US. So this kind of contract is a void contract since it violates law. (Schaffer, Agusti, and Earle 2008) 2. Suppose, A and B sign a contract to build a resort on an island in an active delta area. After a few days, there is a flood and the island is completely submerged under sea. Then, the contract between A and B will become void since the object of the contract cannot be achieved

What relationship can you draw between the ideas of the global village Essay

What relationship can you draw between the ideas of the global village and collective intelligence and how will this impact your professional work - Essay Example Thus, we no longer live in unconnected and detached spots but a ‘global village’. Furthermore, this participation makes what we call ‘collective intelligence’ possible, and that is what is discussed below and how it impacts our lives. What collective intelligence means is that the intelligence of individuals and groups can be pooled together and used in several powerful ways. The actual concept was propounded by Levy (1997) though it is a part of the spiritual concept of ‘collective consciousness’. It was envisioned that networked computers would be able to enhance the totality of human knowledge in a number of ways – by â€Å"facilitating interaction among people†¦[and] promoting [their] participation† (Brand, 2007), and allowing the construction of ‘super databases’. McLuhan (1964) and Boorstin (1978) suggested long ago that we would be living in a ‘boundless global village’ because they foresaw the potential of electronic communication and the evolution of computers and the Internet. The former saw the global village as extending â€Å"or nervous system in a global embrace, abolishing both space and time as far as our planet is concerned† (Symes, 1995). Building on from the earlier World Wide Web, it is evident that a new phase has been reached named as Web 2.0 To take advantage of or ‘harness’ this collective intelligence, many businesses for example have moved entirely onto the Internet and are applying its principles to achieve what they could only imagine before. Thus, another feature of Web 2.0 is the building of special applications that â€Å"harness network effects [to] get better the more people use them† (O’Reilly, 2006). One example of this is the online ‘Wiki’ encyclopedia whose information rests on user contributions (wikepedia.org) The ‘wiki principle’ in general is inviting for people to participate as it gives them power to make useful

How consumer behaviour principles can be applied to membership Essay

How consumer behaviour principles can be applied to membership retention of the Girlguiding Organisation - Essay Example Consumer behaviour is applied for searching goods, purchasing, evaluation, and disposing of products and services; which can satisfy the consumers. It also focuses on individual decision taking abilities to spend their valuable resources (time, money and effort). Sometimes, the peculiar characteristics of consumer behaviour is reinforced or punished. It can reinforce benefits obtained from products and services, or by social approval. It is also simultaneously punished because consumers have to surrender generalized conditions, reinforce entities such as money and rights, and spend time and effort in the purchasing process (Alhadeff, 1982). It also includes concepts of ‘they buy’, ‘why they buy’, ‘when they buy’, ‘where they buy’, ‘how often they buy’, ‘how they use’ and it evaluates the impact on future purchases and how they dispose it. Marketing criticism is applicable to the entire discipline of marketing, which is used for evaluation. It identifies shortages and surpluses, and understands the critical dimensions - focus, process and purpose (Seth, 1982). Today, the consumer’s needs and wants are the primary focus, and this consumer oriented marketing philosophy is known as the marketing concept. Non-profit social organizations use three forms of communication - management communication, marketing communication and organisational communication. Corporate communication encompasses marketing communication, organization communication and management communication. As per the reference to marketing function in the development sector (NPOs), social marketing seeks to influence social behaviour not to benefit the marketer but to benefit the target audience and the general society. In the context of social marketing, it is stated that a strong image building programme increases the visibility of NPOs. The World Association of Girl Guide and Girl Scouts (WAGGS) is one of the largest women’s organizations

Psychoanalysis of Crime Essay Example for Free

Psychoanalysis of Crime Essay An individual’s sense of self has always been an issue that fascinated people. Under the notion that most people enjoy talking about themselves, the realm of psychology opened its doors to investigate the underlying conditions that make people who they are and how they perceive others and the world. Many theories have been developed in order to understand the complexities that make up the human psyche and it is in this aspect that this paper will center upon. The theory which I have chosen for this particular case study is the Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud and I believe this theory will address most of the behavioral patterns that the subject is situated in. Freud’s psychoanalytic style in examining an individual’s motives for behavior has established the grounds for in-depth analysis into a person’s psyche and though it has its limitation, it offers a refreshing viewpoint as to why such behaviors have endured and its significance to an individual’s interpretation of the world (Shoham, 1993). Psychoanalysis has helped in putting into perspective the many ways in which behaviors of an individual or groups of individuals could be determined by the examining their upbringing and isolating internal and external desires. One of the major conjectures of psychoanalysis is that individuals are inherently sinful and they are controlled by certain instincts which are buried in one’s subconscious. The psychoanalytic theory attempts to realize these internal desires in order to determine the right kind of action in which the individual might be able to control a problematic behavior from recurring (Elliott, 2002). In order to see the application of the psychoanalytical theory, a brief background of the case study should be presented to comprehend the situation. The case study involves a twenty-eight year old man named Bert who was convicted of committing larceny. In the article, Bert was condemned to serve a four year sentence in prison with eighteen months non-parole. Admitting to the crime he had committed, he was said to have been accompanied by two accomplices whom he knew from his previous prison sentence. It was relayed that Bert had entered a pub one night and was approached by the two accomplices who urged him to join them rob a factory. Nine weeks before the incident, Bert was out of prison after serving a year in prison for getting caught with stolen goods. In Freud’s Division of the mind, he enlists the concept of the Id, Superego and Ego. The Id is supposed to uphold the baser instincts that are present in each individual. It dispenses on the precepts of pleasure to satisfy the innate wants of the individual. The Superego comprises the ethical or moral aspect of the individual that appeals to an ideal sense of being. The Ego is said to be the balancing aspect of the individual’s personality as it maintains the needs and wants of both the Id and the Superego. The Ego represents the awareness of an individual regarding his/her state of being (Shoham, 1993). If the processes that harmonize these three should ever be disrupted, it would render uneasiness to the individual’s psyche and cause him/her to employ some defense mechanisms that would be able to shield the ego. The psychoanalysis in Bert’s case encompasses a great deal of struggle between his superego and id, as can be denoted when he points out that he is frustrated with himself for not being able to avoid criminal activities. This is described as an over-developed superego, which imposes an excessive need for punishment with regard to the things the individual has wrongly committed or the unpleasant experiences that has brought misery into the individual’s life (Shoham, 1993). In the text, Bert was said to have grown-up in a dysfunctional family and that his absentee father was also a criminal who often displayed a violent attitude towards the family whenever he was home. In this aspect, Bert’s rationale on punishing himself was an act of regression in an early state of his life that involved his father (Shoham, 1993). The illegal acts Bert has committed during his early teens and the subsequent trips to juvenile and adult institutions has led him to think that he should be penalized for the things that he has done and for belonging to a family that breeds criminals.. In a sense, Bert might be trying to compensate for his father’s mistake of abandoning his children with regard to his wife and kids and most especially, his brothers and sister. This kind of rationalization instills tension into his being, which makes him unconsciously commit illegal activities despite his efforts to reform his life (Shoham, 1993). As a result of this conflict, Bert reasons out in a defying way that even though he acknowledges his wrongdoing, he believes that it is under the influence of alcohol and the two conspirators with him the night of the criminal activity. Bert also pointed out that the long sentence designated to the criminal act that he had committed was a bit unreasonable since he only stole goods from a factory and not a private residence. Based on these statements, Bert had shown feelings of contradiction between his guilt for what he had done and his comprehension of the situation as he puts the blame on other sources in lieu of himself. In the case study, Bert was thought of to be a pushover by the law officers as the former would get caught up in situations that force him to do things that should best be avoided (Elliot, 2002). Parallel to his over-developed superego, Bert’s behavior also displays a weak Ego in conjunction with his Id. His inability to stand his ground in moral situations and his inadequacy in delivering good judgments makes him a pawn for manipulative individuals like the two conspirators whom Bert met at the pub (Shoham, 1993). In this situation, it is quite clear that he is still in denial of what he has done since he has not fully accepted the responsibility for the criminal act. However, in another statement, he also did not want to cooperate with the law enforcers in identifying who were his accomplices in committing larceny. This posits a rather confusing behavior as Bert did not want to admit fully to the crime committed yet he does his conspirators a favor and refuses to give out their names to the law officers as he believes that he is not one to break the code of brotherhood. This act alone concurs with the insight made earlier about his desire to be punished for being a criminal (Rosen, 1996). On another note, Bert has tried to justify the crime he had committed by rationalizing the triviality of robbing the factory and that a long sentence was not necessary. He seems to suppress the mere fact that he has a long track record of criminal activities that warrants for the current court verdict. With this in mind, one can deduce that Bert still thinks of himself as a misguided youth. Such display of reasoning implicates how the environment he grew up in greatly influenced his decisions in life (Shoham, 1993). His lack of a formal education and emotional nurture at home resulted to his rebellious conduct and misplaced aggression that could only be attributed to his family’s situation. Bert’s leanings toward alcoholism may be credited to his undeveloped oral stage, which his mother could not properly provide as the strains of his father being in prison and the abuses that his mother and siblings received from him deprived Bert of a normal transition into the next stages of development (Shoham, 1993). In addition, his father’s drunken presence at the puberty stage predisposed him and his older brothers to acclimate a life of criminal activities since that might have been the only way that he could be with his father who was gone most of the time. While he was third among the two boys in his family, he could not look up to his older brothers as they too were undependable for the nurturing in which he sought from his parents (Shoham, 1993). It is in this aspect that one can observe the oedipal complex that Freud has included in his Stages of Development theory as it demonstrates the lack of attention and love that Bert wanted from his father (Shoham, 1993). Bert’s unresolved intimacy issues from both his parents compelled him to project this in an unhealthy lifestyle through alcohol and a string of criminal records. In defense of the two conspirators, Bert might have felt a sense of belongingness in their company since they understood his situation more than anyone, which is why he was adamant to not cooperate with the law enforcers (Shoham, 1993). Bert’s yearning to successfully reform may be hampered by his own moral perceptions as he is not able to grasp the consequences his actions have merited him. While he is affected by what happens with his wife and two children, he cannot instinctively change his ways without going through therapy or some form of rehabilitation to straighten his ways. Bert’s situation could have been easily avoided if he has learned to act on his own. Since his lack of education poses a hindrance to the development of his being, one could suggest that individuals like Bert who are frequently law breakers should be also be subjected to an education in their correction facilities aside from the terms that they serve (Kline, 1987). According to Lester and Van Voorhis’ book â€Å"Psychoanalytic therapy†, criminal convicts like Bert should not be subjected to environments that derail their development. Since most these convicts are not well-equipped with the right attitude to stay off the streets, correctional facilities should be able to provide such services that will be able to aid them to commit to reformation. Support from family and close friends should also be encouraged though for most of these convicts, it would seem quite difficult as most of them don’t have a strong support base (p. 122). From Kline’s book â€Å"Psychoanalysis and crime†, it has been suggested that creating a viable environment for these convicts when they got out is necessary as that will sustain their progress for development and would make them not want to seek the confines of the prison walls as they will be able to feel part of the society again. This entails releasing them in an environment where temptations would not abound and provide them with jobs that does not degrade their sense of being (p. 60). Analyzing Bert’s case in the psychoanalytic perspective has provided grounds on in which correctional facilities should be able to help convicts to maintain a reformed life.

Physical And Slapstick Comedy Film Studies Essay

Physical And Slapstick Comedy Film Studies Essay Early film comedy certainly focuses more on physical comedy-the slap in the face, the anvil falling on a head kind of stuff. With film being silent, you had to focus on body language to convey meaning. Plots were usually ridiculous and as one punch was being set up, another was being knocked-down. When we finally put sound to film, everything changed. Not only did plot improve, but sound effects added to the mood and tone of a piece. In October, 1927, The Jazz Singer, the first talkie by Warner Brothers, introduced some limited audio. It included the music and some background and sound effects, but no dialogue. It would be another year before dialogue would be included. For one, the technology hadnt been created and many filmmakers and critics, who worried that a focus on dialogue would subvert the unique aesthetic virtues of soundless cinema, (wiki 1). The first feature film to include dialogue was also a Warner Brothers film, The Tenderloin, though only 15 of its 88 minutes actually had dialogue, (wiki). Unfortunately for those comedians who made a career in the world of silent film, such as Charlie Chaplin and, Anny Ondra, didnt fair well in the talkies. The few who did make the transition flourished. Martin Sills and Al Jolson continued their success, while the Marx Brothers finally found their niche. Having found fame in Vaudeville, the Marx Brothers came to the silver screen in their first motion picture Cocoanuts (1929). The Brothers always played the same characters, Groucho, Harpo, Chico, and Zeppo and was instantly recognized because of their avant-garde personas. There comedy style was very slap-stick (even violent) and sometimes non-sensical. The fact is, slap-stick comedy is often violent and not equally funny. If you filled a room full of a hundred people and showed them old-comedy reels, not everyone would laugh. At times, I was the person not laughing. I discovered that the humor had a lot to do with context and background. In One Week, a couple is crossing a train track and narrowly misses being hit by a train. Then, on key, a train hits their stuff from the other direction. Funny stuff, right? Perhaps not if you recently had a friend killed by a train. I paid more attention this semester when watching popular television shows such as Americas Funniest Home Videos. I discovered that I often gasped in disbelief, not laughter. A middle-aged-man acting like a monkey on a trampoline is funny, but Im not sure how him falling off, face first, doesnt make more people think of the life time of medical bills or rehabilitation he might have to endure. I assume that my background in caring for someone injured and the struggles Ive had with injury have tarnished my ability to find humor in dangerous situations. The humor might be lost on the few who look at these situational comedies differently. These films (Duck Soup and Slapstick Masters) also pioneered some of the situational comedy that is still popular today. Some of these examples include: the anvil on the head, the near-miss train, sawing the wrong end of beam, etc. When these films were popular, it was the first time people saw these skits and stunts. I would imagine that audiences were in stitches. And, when you look at the seriousness of their lives, war, depression, and economic collapse, this type of humor was a welcome break from factory life. They needed that release. My generation grew up watching full-color, full-access cable and weve seen hundreds of these skits time and time again. I found the old Charlie Chaplin and Marx Brothers routines to be predictable. Basically, Ive seen it before. The mirror routine that the Marx Brothers perform in Duck Soup, Ive seen at least twice, in The Parent Trap and Strictly Business. I have thousands of hours of cartoons catalogued in my brain. The Road Runner and Wylie Coyote used a lot of these slap-stick techniques such as the classic stick of TNT, with a faulty fuse, that explodes on the initiator. We also have some modern slapstick heros such as Jim Carey and Chevy Chase. And Saturday Night Live is full of physical comedy and off-color humor. It appears the older I get the more I prefer satire or intellectual comedy. I dont want to be handed the joke I want to work for it. I think the Cohen Brothers share my philosophy and tend to produce dark comedies. The Big Lebowski, one of the few Cohen films I was not familiar with, definitely uses satire. The Dude gets roped into a scheme to save Bunny, a near-broke millionaires trophy wife from kidnappers. The Dude was originally mistaken for the millionaire when a group of thugs came to collect a debt from him. They ruined his rug and the Dude sought out the real Lebowski for restitution. He takes a rug and returns to his humdrum life, bowling with his inept friends and smoking pot. The film has a huge cast of characters, and each one adds some twist to the plot. In the end, we find that Bunny returns from holiday (unbeknownst to her husband) and Mr. Lebowski turns out to be as crooked as his fake kidnappers. The Dude returns to his normal life and continues to bowl, albeit one friend less. This is the kind of irony-ridden, plot twisting, ridiculousness, I just love and it makes you laugh. Its absurd. We certainly saw a wide-range of comedic works this semester. I was introduced to works Ive never seen, a few I never heard of, and several I would have never watched on my own. I understand a bit more about why people find some thing things humorous while others do not. I also learned more about early American film, and how actors of the day, especially from Vaudeville struggled to make the shift from a live audience to that of paid-patrons of the silver-screen. Comedy is perhaps the hardest type of writing to produce and perhaps the hardest to perform because of the endless variables of the audience. Humor is fickle, but if you find it, laughter can be timeless.

Structure of English Law

Structure of English Law Philip Blincow This paper covers the basis of law which takes president in the UK. Case law, Statute Law and European Law, along with other areas that form the structure of Common Law. Relevant cases will be used to back statements. Case Law and Statute law are two pillars of what makes English Law; formed to regulate actions of citizens to govern behaviour and impose penalties on those who brake it. Case Law is based on the doctrine of Judicial Precedent which in turn refers to Stare decisis meaning standing by of previous decisions. This mean that once a law has been passed by a Judge in a previous case, it binds all lower courts holding future cases based on the same material facts. In order for Judicial Precedent to work, points of law need to be determined. When a judge makes a ruling, the reasons for reaching such decisions derives from the ratio decidendi (the reason for deciding). An example of this would be the case of Donoghue V Stevenson [1932] duty of care came down to the manufacture owing Mrs Donoghue on the grounds of negligence. This set the precedent for the following case Grant v Australian Knitting Mills [1936]. However, it is important to separate Ratio decidendi from Obiter dicta (by the way). Obiter dicta does not refer to the decision from a previous ruling. It looks at the areas of the case that rely on interpretation from the judge which is not necessary for the decision. It does not form part of the ratio decidendi. In the case of R v Howe Bannister [1987] the obiter dicta of the case is: somebody who attempts murder should not be able to plea a defence of duress. Statute Law (also known as Acts of Parliament or Legislation) is laws made by Parliament, which is split into two Chambers: The House of Lords and the House of Commons. After a bill is approved by the two Chambers, it will receive formal approval from the Monarchy referred to as Royal Assent. This turns a bill into law known as an Act of Parliament. Statute law referrers to written law and gives a rigid and formal interpretation of the law. Case law comes from Judicial Precedent. Statutory interpretation falls to the court to apply it in certain cases. The statue will not cover all ambiguities / eventualities in each case. Therefore, rules have been created to avoid an unfair ruling. Firstly, the Literal rule: when the meaning of the words written in the statute are applied such as in the case of Fisher V Bell [1961]. A flick knife was displayed with a price tag therefore presented an invitation to treat and not presented as an offer. Secondly, the Golden rule: when the action of the literal rule would lead to an unacceptable result. In the case Re Sigsworth [1935], the son who murdered his mother to inherit the estate was denied. Finally, the Mischief rule: when an ambiguity in the statute occurs. Such as in Corkery v Carpenter [1951], as the defendant was in charge whilst drunk of his bike, he presented a danger to others on the road. Another source of English Law is Equity. It is an important aspect of the law as it is about fairness and justice. Common law can be quite harsh at times and can result in someone losing a case through no fault of their own. Equity provides a judge the ability to deviate from the strict written law in order not to disadvantage someone. One example is Bull v Bull [1955]. Due to the mothers contribution to the house, she could not be evicted. Together these areas of law are designed to keep people safe and to preserve order. If an issue arises that cannot be decided on precedent, statutory law decides the case. Contract law, tort law and property law exist mostly with case law, however, there are some written statutes that are relevant to these areas. Parliamentary Sovereignty is the supreme legal authority in the UK that can create or end any law. Courts cannot overrule legislation made by parliament although no parliament can bind a future parliament. In 1972, the UK handed over sovereignty to the EU meaning Europe overrule and takes precedence over Acts of Parliament. Any are outside of where the EU operates, Parliament retains its supremacy. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union and 2 institutions of the European Union that create new laws and codes. The reason European law was created was to encourage economic growth, increase movement of people, goods and services between member states and allowing a common market to exist. The European Communities Act 1972 came into effect when the UK joined the EU January 1st 1973. Section 2(1) of the Act dictates European Law will take precedence over domestic law. Section 2(4) provides that when a judgment of a statute is interpreted, it is in accordance and consistent with EU law. Section 3(1) provides interpretation of legislation and treaties to be treated as a question of law. Courts must accept judiciary supremacy comes from EU law. This is evident in the case between Flaminio Costa v ENEL [1964]. The claimant lost the case because the ECC (European Civil Code) Treaty created its own legal system which became integral to the legal system of each member state. In this case the Italian legal system taking precedence over national law. Word Count 866 Task 2 Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) gives parties involved in commercial disputes and attractive alternative than going to trial. The Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (CPRs) actively encourage its use. Here we can see how these rules effect the Pre-Trial Conduct and what the likely position regarding costs to the Montague Builders Ltd will be. There are 2 types of ADR process, Adjudication and Consensual. Adjudication consists of a third party to consider a dispute and provides a judgment (normally a judge, arbitrator or adjudicator). The decision made is enforceable on both parties. The consensual process is alternative method of dispute resolution. Here a third party is assigned to facilitate a solution. The disputing parties are to make the final decision, not the third-party member. The Civil Procedure Rules 1998 derives from Lord Woolf being commissioned in 1994 to writing a report Access to Justice released 1996. Reasons being it is too expensive, too slow, lacking equality and uncertainty over the amount of time and cost when reaching a settlement. The report recommended procedural change designed for a less confrontational and faster settlement. Simpler terminology was brought in to make courts more user friendly. These reforms are known as the Woolf Reforms. Practice Directions are placed within the Rules as guide lines to how: parties should operate, documentation required to be filed to the court and what would happen if not carried out properly. (Jones, 2011) The Civil Procedure Rules have an effect on the Pre-Trial Conduct. This could come down to costs assigned by a court if a party has not complied or ignored order made during an adjudication. Practice Direction 44 General Rules About Costs, (Justice.gov.uk, 2016) section 44.2 has a breakdown of costs a court would commonly make. Therefore, regardless of the result of the trial, that party will most likely incur the costs of both parties. Rules such as this are in place to get parties to attempt settling disputes rather than brining a claim to trial. European Convention of Human Rights Article 6(1) Right to Fair Trial (Legislation.gov.uk, 2016) This means if pressured to use an ADR method, this would infringe their right to a fair trial. A party can however wave their right by contractually agreeing to resolve a dispute through the ADR Adjudication process such as in the case of Deweer V Belgium [1980]. Mediation is an effective way of setting a dispute as it assigns a third party, (who will be mutually appointed) to acts as a go-between facilitating discussions for the parties to come up with a solution. The solution however in not binding and cannot be enforced by the courts. At the end of the mediation, the parties will enter into a contract to carry out the solution achieved. The contact is binding and must be carried out. Many benefits come with mediation. Examples such as it enables the parties to control the settlement, produce creative ideas, keep the process informal, allows for collaboration between the parties. Relationships can be restored but one benefit in particular is that the case stays confidential. It prevents Washing dirty linen in public, meaning the details of the case becoming public record. Benefits of attempting Pre-Action Protocol is that chance of a settlement satisfying both parties becomes more likely as a third party whilst being in a neutral position, will actively seek the best result for both sides. If a settlement cannot be agreed and a trial is set, one or both sides will have to show all has been done in an attempt to settle. Mediation is not compulsory as it is a consensual process of dispute resolution. If one party refuses to attempt finding a solution through ADR and insists on a trial, that party is acting unreasonably. Taking into account how mediation has been offered to the client by Montague Builders Ltd and the refusal by the client without offering an alternative to mediation, lends itself to a likely conclusion that Montague Builders Ltd acted in a just and reasonable manner and the client showed themselves to be unreasonable. Should the client continue to refuse any attempts to settle through mediation, an appeal for the costs for the trial to be paid by the client regardless of the outcome would be justified. Such as in the case between Dunnett v Railtrack [2002]. Word Count 693 Total Word Count 1,559 References: Bull v Bull [1955] 1 QB 234 Corkery v Carpenter [1951] 1 KB 102 Deweer v Belgium 1980 2 ehrr 439 Donoghue V Stevenson [1932]AC 562 (HL). Dunnett v Railtrack [2002] EWCA Civ 302 Fisher v Bell [19610 1 QB 394: [1960] 3 WLR 919.DC Grant v Australian Knitting Mill [1936] AC 85 (PC) Human Rights Act 1998. 2016 Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/42/schedule/1 [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016]. PRACTICE DIRECTION 44 GENERAL RULES ABOUT COSTS. 2016. Available at: https://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/procedure-rules/civil/rules/part-44-general-rules-about-costs/part-44-general-rules-about-costs2#rule4.1 [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016]. Jones, L. (2011). Introduction to business law. Oxford: Oxford University Press R v Howe Bannister [1987] 2 WLR 568 (HL) Re Sigsworth [1935] 1 Ch 98 Bibliography: Hg.org. (2016). Case Law Common Law. [online] Available at: https://www.hg.org/case-law.html [Accessed 18 Nov. 2016]. TheFreeDictionary.com. (2016). common law. [online] Available at: http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/common+law [Accessed 18 Nov. 2016]. Common.laws.com. (2016). Common Law V Statutory Law Common | Laws.com. [online] Available at: http://common.laws.com/common-law/common-law-v-statutory-law [Accessed 19 Nov. 2016]. E-lawresources.co.uk. (2016). e-lawresources.co.uk. [online] Available at: http://e-lawresources.co.uk/Home.php [Accessed 18 Nov. 2016]. Legislation.gov.uk. (2016). Human Rights Act 1998. [online] Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/42/schedule/1 [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016]. Jones, L. (2011). Introduction to business law. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.31-32. Michael-dawson.co.uk. (2016). Michael Dawson Accredited Mediator. [online] Available at: http://michael-dawson.co.uk/dunnett-v-railtrack.php [Accessed 22 Nov. 2016]. UK Parliament. (2016). Parliamentary sovereignty. [online] Available at: https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/sovereignty/ [Accessed 19 Nov. 2016]. Justice.gov.uk. (2016). PRACTICE DIRECTION 44 GENERAL RULES ABOUT COSTS. [online] Available at: https://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/procedure-rules/civil/rules/part-44-general-rules-about-costs/part-44-general-rules-about-costs2#rule4.1 [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016]. Justice.gov.uk. (2016). Rules Practice Directions Civil Procedure Rules. [online] Available at: https://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/procedure-rules/civil/rules [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016]. Hg.org. (2016). Statutory Law. [online] Available at: https://www.hg.org/statutory-law.html [Accessed 18 Nov. 2016]. Chcs.org.uk. (2016). The Law Making Processes of the EU. [online] Available at: http://www.chcs.org.uk/eu-law-making-process.htm [Accessed 22 Nov. 2016]. Wild, C., Weinstein, S., Smith, K. and Keenan, D. (2013). Smith Keenans English law. 17th ed. Edinbrough.

An Envision brought Alive :: essays papers

An Envision brought Alive The video of the glass menagerie met to my exact expectation of the play. While reading the play I could only grasp in my mind the picture of each of the characters, the setting they were in, and the relationships they were engaged in. Therefore I could only envision what I thought their faces would look like or the expressions they were making. But after watching the video I was able to put the puzzle pieces together and finally see what I was missing through the portrayal of characters, the setting, and the relationship between the characters. The portrayal of the characters was done almost exactly to the play. I felt that each of the actors did an exceptional job at this. Amanda’s character came alive in the movie and emphasized her typical role of a nagging and annoying person. Her overall attitude, motions, and facial expressions helped bring alive her character. She expressed tones in her voice, that you wouldn’t be able to hear in reading the play, which helped illuminate her characters determination with dominating over her children and also with winning over Jim. The portrayal of Tom was also done very well, a young man tired of living at home with a mother who will not leave him alone and a sister who he feels bad to leave behind. The actor used good expressions such as the roiling of his eyes to his mother and his angry faces when she pushed him to the edge. In the play I didn’t grasp how frustrated he actually was, but the movie helped me understand with his character. I felt Laura was the b est portrayed character. Her weak and humble attitude, her shy and nervous ways, her small frame, her little girl look were all shown in the video. Her emphasis on her disability was also portrayed well in the movie. In the scene with her and Jim in the living room when he tells her he didn’t even notice she had a problem with her leg, she becomes greatly embarrassed and shy and wants to not talk about that subject. Jim’s character was also portrayed well in the play I found him to not really like Laura or feel bad for her when he tells her he is engaged, but in the movie I found him to be more caring and sympathetic towards Laura and her feelings.

John Woo Essay -- Action Films Directors Movies Essays

John Woo The bread-and-butter of the film industry is the action movie. Each summer, audiences can expect to see car chases, gunfights and explosions, and studios can expect to see millions and millions of dollars in return. Though most viewers and critics see these movies as "fluff" entertainment (and rightfully so), there is one director that puts as much heart and soul into his "fluff" as any number of talented directors put into their "serious" movies. His name is John Woo. Even though you may not have heard about him, he is widely considered to be "the best contemporary director of action films working anywhere." John Woo, after many years of hard work, has become known as the world's best action film director. His action sequences have become the stuff of legend and are now the basis from which all other action movies are judged. More importantly, along with the bloodshed, Woo has proven that he can create real characters with real emotions that the audience can sympathize with. Perhaps that is his greatest talent, and perhaps that is why he will become known as one of the greatest directors in the years to come. John Woo’s style is definitely fast paced an exciting. Mostly throughout all of his movies his themes are good against evil. It is always the case of a standoff between the good guy and the bad guy, in their last battle, always to the death. Woo’s would often use montages to make time go faster, as in Face/Off when the swat team breaks into the hou...

Congestive Heart Failure Essay

Abstract The prevalence of congestive heart failure is on the increase both in the United States and all over the world, and it is the leading cause of hospitalization in the elderly population. Congestive heart failure is a progressive disease generally seen in the elderly, which if not properly managed, can lead to repeated hospital admissions or death. Heart failure means that the heart muscle is weakened. A weakened heart muscle may not be strong enough to pump an adequate amount of blood out of its chambers. To compensate for its diminished pumping capacity, the heart may enlarge. Commonly, the heart’s pumping inefficiency causes a buildup of blood in the lungs, a condition called pulmonary congestion. Prevalence Congestive heart failure continues to grow in prevalence due to the ageing population and the survival rates of myocardial infarctions (Fundukian, 2011). Congestive heart failure means that the heart is still pumping blood, but at a slower rate than normal, so the pressure in the heart starts to increase as a result. This slower heart rate causes the heart to be unable to pump enough blood to provide the rest of the body with the amount of nutrients and oxygen that it needs. As the pressure increases in the heart, the chambers stretch to hold more blood, or they become stiff and thickened. This compensation mechanism works, but eventually the myocardium will weaken and the heart will decrease in its efficiency to pump blood. This results in a reduction of blood supply to the kidneys, which then begin to lose their ability to excrete salt and water. This lessened function of the kidney causes the body to retain more fluid. The fluid build-up then leads to edema or congestion of tissue s (Fundukian, 2011). Incidence Congestive heart failure is a serious condition with significant morbidity  and mortality. In the United States, African Americans significantly have a higher risk for developing CHF than other ethnic groups, whether or not the heart failure is preceded by a myocardial infarction. Hypertension and diabetes are more prevalent in African Americans, and that explains a large part of the racial and ethnic differences in the risks for developing CHF (Gore, 2008). Assessment. Patient’s demographics, clinical history, alongside with complete history and physical is obtained by the nurse. Head to toe assessment is done to check for any physical signs of complications from the disease, commonly dependent edema, and the functional status of the patient. The functional status, which includes the activities of daily living (ADL), is assessed to determine the severity of the disease (Ramos, Prata, Goncalves, & Coelho, 2013).In addition to the physical assessment, brain natruretic peptid (BNP), a hormone that checks for the functionality of the heart is also checked, and is a measuring tool to diagnose CHF (Ramos, Prata, Goncalves, & Coelho, 2013). Pathophysiology. Heart failure may be classified according to the side of the heart affected, (left- or right-sided failure), or by the cardiac cycle involved, (systolic or diastolic dysfunction)(Haydock & Cowie, 2010). Late blood supply edema may develop (Haydock & Cowie, 2010). Where edema occurs depends on what side of the heart is failing. Left-sided heart failure results from the inability of the left ventricle to function properly. Blood fails to get out to other parts of the body as quickly as it returns from the lungs. When blood doesn’t get back to the heart, it backs up in the lungs blood vessels. Blood is then forced into the intracellular space in the lungs causing pulmonary edema (Haydock & Cowie, 2010). Right-sided heart failure results from the inability of the right ventricle to function properly. Blood isn’t pumped to the lungs as quickly as it returns from the other parts of the body. Fluid then begins to back up in the veins and pushes out into the tissues, causing edema, most often in the feet, lower legs, and ankles. (Haydock & Cowie, 2010). Sluggish blood flow also deprives organs of oxygen and other nutrients causing fatigue and difficultly with physical exertion. The heart tries to compensate for its lack of pumping ability by becoming hypertrophic. This causes the muscle in the heart’s wall to thicken thus improving the pumping  ability of the heart (Haydock & Cowie, 2010). The heart may also increase heart rate to improve output and circulation. The kidneys eventually join in by retaining salt and water to increase volume, but this extra fluid can cause edema and further complicate the situation. (Haydock & Cowie,2010). Despite varying etiologies, there are molecular and biochemical features that contribute to heart failure (Keys & Kotch, 2004). Activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes enhancement of the adrenergic system, which in effect, contributes to loss of cardiac function. Enhancement of adrenergic functions can lead to hypertension in susceptible individuals, and in effect, contributes to heart failure (Keys & Kotch, 2004). Causes. Causes of congestive heart failure could be coronary artery disease (CAD), which is when the arteries that supply the heart with oxygen and blood become blocked or narrowed. Other causes include previous heart attack due to the tissue scarring, or cardiomyopathy which is damage to the heart muscle. Cardiomyopathy is caused by problems other than decreased blood flow. The causes include infections, alcohol, or drug use. Other factors that can contribute to congestive heart failure are hypertension, heart valve disease, thyroid disease, kidney disease, di abetes, or congenital heart defects (Fundukian, 2011) Symptoms. Symptoms of congestive heart failure consist of fatigue, dependent edema, fluid build-up in the lungs, increase in urination because of the extra fluid, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and decreased appetite (Fundukian, 2011). Diagnosis of CHF is done first by physical examination, such as heart rate, and heart sounds or murmurs. If a physician believes more tests are needed, common ones include an electrocardiogram or chest x-ray to detect previous heart attacks, arrhythmia, or heart enlargement, and echocardiogram using ultrasound to image the heart muscle, valves, and blood flow patterns. The physician may also want to do a heart catheterization, to allow the arteries of the heart to be visualized using angiography. Upon getting a diagnosis of CHF, the physician will usually start with asking the patient to change things in their diet, such going to a low sodium diet. They may also want to prescribe medications. Types of medications could include angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors,  which block formation of angiotensin II hormone, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) to block the action of angiotensin II at the receptor site, and diuretics, just to name a few (Fundukian, 2011). If these primary treatments are ineffective for the patient, the physician may want to revert to other methods such as surgery. Depending on the specific problem in the heart, the physician could recommend bypass surgery, to route blood around the blocked artery, heart valve surgery for replacement or repair of a dysfunctional valve, or infarct exclusion surgery to remove scar tissue that accumulated due to a previous heart attack. The final measures would be placement of a left ventricular assisted device (LVAD), which helps to pump blood throughout the body. This is usually only used in patients who are waiting for a heart transplant. The outcome or prognosis of congestive heart failure is extremely variable. It is usually related to its functional class. These functional classes are Class 1, patient has a weakened heart but is without symptoms or limitation, Class 2, only limitation of heavier workloads, Class 3, limitation of everyday activity, and Class 4, severe symptoms at rest or with any degree of effort (Fundukian, 2011). Management of congestive heart failure. Healthcare workers play an important role in educating patients with congestive heart failure about the disease and how to manage it. According to Garcias and Wright (2010), congestive heart patients who are taught by knowledgeable nurses may have a better understanding of their disease and how to improve their quality of life and decrease mortality and hospital admission rates. Self-care is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon that needs a comprehensive consideration of patients including their emotional situation, psychological characters, physical abilities, family support, living facilities, comorbidities (especially cognitive function) and their ability for learning. Insufficient knowledge about CHF, symptom recognition and ways of self-care along with hopelessness and psychological problems limited their abilities for an effective self-care. A supportive environment, motivation and adequate care programs using effective educational methods that build self-care skills, should be recommended to health care providers and families (Siabani, Leeder, & Davidson, 2013) There are several ways to prevent congestive heart failure. Diet management is a key factor in securing a future without  congestive heart failure. Maintaining a proper diet is crucial. Being overweight will act as a burden to the heart causing it to work harder to pump blood throughout the body. It is necessary to reduce sodium intake to avoid retaining fluids. The next step would be to increase potassium intake. Individuals who have congestive heart failure are usually prescribed diuretics to help excrete fluids causing a loss of potassium. Potassium can be found in green leafy vegetables and most fruits, particularly bananas, oranges, and dried fruit. Other factors for congestive heart failure prevention would involve exercise, not smoking and limited alcoho l consumption. (Haydock & Cowie, 2010). Various drugs are incorporated into treatment for congestive heart failure. The use of drugs is intended for reducing fluids within the body or to reduce blood pressure in the arteries of the body. Typical drugs used for treatment are Ace inhibitors, beta-blockers, digitalis, diuretics and vasodilators. Beta-blockers are intended to improve function for the left lower ventricular pumps. Diuretics are intended to assist in eliminating products that primarily contribute to congestion such as salt and water. Digitalis serves a very important role in strengthening the heart so it can serve as a more efficient, reliable, and effective pump. Treatment may involve surgery if the failure is a result of a poor functioning heart valve. Surgery could involve repair or replacement of a heart valve or in drastic cases, replacement of the heart itself (Gore, 2008). Lifestyle adjustment is necessary to effectively curtail the increasing prevalence of CHF. It is important should therefore optimize control of hypertension and diabetes (Gore, 2008). General treatment will also consist of exercise, weight loss, rest and specific attention to maintaining a suitable diet plan. The Practice Framework of a person that has congestive heart failure is greatly affected. Individuals must reduce the amount of exertion on their bodies to prevent over stimulating the heart. The limitations caused by the failure make performing even routine tasks more difficult. Some of the activities of daily living (ADL’s) that this individual might have issues with might be, getting dressed and undressed, toileting, personal hygiene, bathing and eating (Haydock & Cowie, 2010). To reduce hospitalization of the CHF patient, nurses must teach patients about illness, symptoms, diet, medication, and energy conservation. The more knowledge a nurse can give to a patient concerning CHF, the more  the patient can do to reduce hospitalizations. Gerontological nurses must provide high quality, research-based clinical care for these patients (Bushnell & Lopez, 1992). Conclusion: Congestive heart disease is a disease that grows fast in prevalence, causing a high rate of hospitalization every year. It is more prevalent in the elderly population. The symptoms of congestive heart failure mimic that of other diseases, but shortness of breath, fatigue, and dependent edema are common in patients. When taking care of patients with congestive heart failure, it is important to incorporate cultural and spiritual considerations. References Bushnell, F.K. & Lopez, E. (1992). Self care teaching: for congestive heart failure patients. Journal of Gerontological Nursing. 18(10): 27-32 Fundukian, L. J., (2011). Congestive heart failure. The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. 4th Ed. 2(4): 1142-1147. Detroit: Gale Cengage Learning Garcias, R.E., & Wright, V. R. (2010). Cardiology research and clinical developments: Congestive Heart Failure : Symptoms, Causes and Treatment. .† SciTech Book News Dec. 2010. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA243379576&v=2.1&u=vic_liberty&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=3d10bca3f720fda0cb553c2548646db8 Gore, J.M. (2008). Ethnicity and incidence of congestive heart failure. Journal Watch.Cardiology. Proquest. Haydock, P.M. & Cowie M.R. (2010). Heart failure: classification and pathophysiology. Medicine. 38(9). pp 467- 472. Keys J. R. & Kotch, W. J. (2004). The adrenergic pathway and heart failure. PubMed, 59, 13-30. Retrieved from, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14749495. Ramos, S., Prata, J., Goncalves, S.R., & Coelho, R. (2013). Congestive heart failure and quality of life. Applied Research in Quality of Life. Springer Netherlands, 9(4)4, pp. 803 – 817 Siabani, S., Leeder, S.R., & Davidson, P.M. (2013).Barriers and facilitators to self-care in chronic heart failure: a meta-synthesis of qualitative studies. SpringerPlus 2013, 2:320 doi:10.1186/2193-1801-2-320

Gendered Media

Article 7 G break offered Media The bewitch of Media on Views of grammatical genderual practice Julia T. Wood incision of Communication, University of North carolina at Chapel pitcher successions to a greater extent(prenominal) than frequently than superstars round wo humannesspower (Study Reports energise Bias, 1989), media misre pledge existent proportions of exitforce and wo hands in the population. This constant straining tempts us to rec either that there in truth atomic number 18 to a greater extent than change separateforce than wowork force and, ex angiotensin-converting enzym timete head federal agency, that workforce atomic number 18 the pagan model. THEMES IN MEDIA Of the numerous influences on how we view manpower and wo workforce, media be the approximately pervasive and unrivalled of the stuffy to decently.Woven through come forth our daily provoke it offs, media insinuate their gists into our instinct at e very(prenominal) tur n. All miscellanys of media expire picture shows of the commovees, numerous of which perpetuate un possible, stereotypic, and modification perceptions. collar disciplines describe how media represent grammatical gender. First, wo workforce atomic number 18 under represent, which wrongly implies that hands argon the pagan standardized and wo manpower atomic number 18 unimportant or invisible. Second, manpower and wo custody atomic number 18 envisi one and only(a)d in uninspired squiffyss that gleam and pay back soci on the wholey endorsed views of gender.Third, depictions of recountingships surrounded by manpower and wo hands accent tralatitiousistic maps and formize furious ness against wo hands. We entirelyow take apiece of these homes in this section. Underrepresentation of Wo manpower A native way in which media distort veracity is in underrepresenting wo custody. Whether it is ready- quantify tele externaliseing, in which there atomic num ber 18 three times as many a(prenominal) white workforce as wo hands (Basow, 1992 p. 159), or childrens curriculumme, in which manfuls come outnumber pistillates by two to one, or refreshfulscasts, in which wo men fuck off up 16% of red-hotscasters and in which stories or so men argon include 10 MEDIAS MISREPRESENTATION OF AMERICAN LIFEThe media present a distorted version of heathenish lifetime in our country. According to media faceals clean-living phallics nettle up two-thirds of the population. The women ar slight in number, perhaps beca utilization hardly a(prenominal)er than 10% live beyond 35. Those who do, a manage(p) their younkerer and potent counter plowsh ars, be nearly all white and hetero familiar. In addition to be young, the playing araity of women be beautiful, very thin, passive, and primarily c erstwhilerned with analogyships and stimulateting rings out of collars and commodes. There atomic number 18 a fewer openhanded, bitchy women, and they atomic number 18 non so pretty, non so subordinate, and non so caring as the skillful women. or so of the bad ones work outside of the home, which is the likely why they ar hardened and undesirable. The more(prenominal) than powerful, aspirant men occupy themselves with important job deals, exciting adventures, and rescuing symbiotic young-bearing(prenominal)s, whom they often wherefore assault cozyly. From Gendered Lives Communication, Gender, and Culture by Julie T. Wood, Chapter 9, pp. 231-244. 0 1994. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Thomson Learning. fax 800-730-2215. 31 T LI Y IIYC WI I H MEDIA Other falsehoods or so what is standard be alike modify by communication in media.Minorities argon withal less(prenominal) visible than women, with Afri domiciliate-the Statesns appearing only seldom (Gray, 1986 Stroman, 1989) and early(a) heathenish minorities cosmos virtually nonexistent. In childrens sched ule when African-Americans do appear, al or so perpetually they appear in obligeing dowerys quite a than as main characters (OConnor, 1989). age more African-Americans ar appearing in prime-time telecasting, they ar too often cast in stereotypic roles. In the 1992 season, for instance, 12 of the 74 series on commercial networks included monumental African-American casts, yet most ca utilize them in stereotypical roles.Black men ar presented as lazy and ineffectual to handle authority as lecherous, and/or as unlawful, while feminines atomic number 18 depicted as do tapering or as provoke objects (Sights Sounds, and Stereotypes, 1992). Writing in 1993, David Evans (1993, p. 10) criticized television for stereotyping blackness young-begetting(prenominal)s as athletes and entertainers. These roles wrote Evans, mislead young black mannish viewing audience in& persuasion success is only a dribble or dance mistreat away and blind them to some otherwise, more rea listic ambitions. &panics and Asians atomic number 18 nearly absent, and when they ar presented it is unremarkably as villains or criminals (Lichter, Lichter, Rothman, & Amundson, 1987). Also under-represented is the bingle fastest growing we ar aging so that large number all bothwhere 60 gear up up a major part of our population within this group, women importantly outnumber men (Wood, 1993). Older people non only argon under-represented in media tho in addition be represented inaccurately In contrast to demo lifelike realities, media consistently direct fewer ripened women than men, presumably because our culture worships youth and dish in women.Further, elderly individuals argon often confronted as sick, myrmecophilous, fumbling and passive, images not borne out in real life. Distirted depictions of fourth-year people and especially older women in media, however, can delude us into conjectureing they argon a small, sickly, and unimportant part of our popu lation. group of Americans- older people. As a country, Stereotypical Portrayals of Women and Men In general, media stick to present both women and men in embossd slipway that limit our perceptions of gentleman possibilities.Typically men argon portrayed as active, adventurous, powerful, innerly combative and by and large unloving in human relationships. Just as consistent with cultural views of gender atomic number 18 depictions of women as shake up objects who are ordinarily young, thin beautiful, passive, forecastent, and often in skilled and dumb. distaff characters devote their simple energies to improving their appearances and fetching care of homes and people. Because media pervade our lives, the shipway they forge genders may distort how we follow up ourselves and what we see as design and desirable for men and women.Stereotypical portrayals of men. According to J. A. Doyle (1989, p. ill), whose watch for focuses on masculinity childrens television typically shows priapics as scrappy, dominant, and enlistd in exciting activities from which they cash in ones chips hold re state of wards from others for their mascu t beseech accomplishments. Relatedly, spick-and-span-fangled studies reveal that the majority of men on prime-time television are independent, aggressive, and in charge (McCauley Thangavelu, & Rozin, 1988). Television programming foi all ages disproportionately depicts men as serious confident, competent, owerful, and in high-status positions. Gentleness in men, which was t give-up the ghostcatedly evident in the 197Os, has receded as compriseed male characters are redrawn to be more tough and distanced from others (Bayer, 1986). Highly public films such as LethaI Weapon, Predator, Days of Thunder, pith Recall, Robocop Die Hard, and Die Harder star men who make up the The lack of women in the media is paralleled by the scarcity of women in charge of media. besides around(predicate) 5% of television w riters, executives, and producers are women (Lichter, Lichter, & Rothman, 1986).Ironically, while twothirds of journalism graduates are women, they start out up less than 2% of those in corporate management of intelligence servicepapers and only more or less 5% of newspaper publishers (Women in Media, 1988). egg-producing(prenominal) film directors are even rnonz-scarce, as are executives in charge of MTV It is believably not coincidental that so few women are behind the scenes of an industry that so consistently portrays women ostracisely Some media analysts (Mills 1988) deal that if more women had positions o authority at executive levels, media would advise more arrogant portrayals of women. tereotype of peak masculinity Media, then honour long-standing cultural humorls of masculinity Men are presented as hard, tough, independent, cozyly aggressive, unafraid, scarlet, arrively in accommodate of all emotions, and-above all-in no way feminine. Equally pleaseing is how males are not presented. J. D. Br cause and K. Campbell (1986) report that men are seldom sh avow doing housework. Doyle (1989) notes that boys and men are rarely presented caring for others. B.Horovitz (1989) points out they are typically represented as uninterested in and incompetent at home reservation, training, and child care. distri unlessively seasons new ads for cooking and cleaning supplies include several that travesty men as incompetent buffoons, who are klutzes in the kitchen and no better at taking care of children. While childrens books substantiate made a hold in attempt to depict women rund in activities outside of the home there has been humble parallel perspiration to show men involbed in family and home life. When close toone is shown taking care of a child , t is usually the mother, not the father. This perpetuates a negative stereotype of men as uncaring and un twisting in family life. Stereotypical portrayals of women. Medias images of women als o reflect cultural stereotypes that leave markedly from reality As we abide al show upy seen, missys and 7. Gendered Media JILL I remember when I was little I use to read books from the boys section of the library because they were more interesting. Boys did the period of be presumption stuff and the exciting things. My mother unplowed trying to get me to read girls books, but I clean couldnt get into them.Why cant stories to the highest degree girls be full of adventure and bravery? I know when Im a mother, I want any little girls of mine to conceive that excitement isnt just for boys. women are dramatically underrepresented. In prime- time television in 1987, fully two-thirds of the oratory move were for men. Women are portrayed as significantly younger and thinner than women in the population as a whole, and most are depicted as passive, dependent on men, and enmeshed in relationships or housework (Davis, 1990). The requirements of youth and eauty in women even influ ence news shows, where womanish newscasters are expected to be younger, more physically attractive, and less outspoken than males (Craft, 1988 Sanders & Rock, 1988). Despite educators review article of self-fulfilling prophecies that discourage girls from success in mathematics and science, that stereotype was dramatically reiterated in 1992 when Mattel offered a new talking Barbie doll. What did she say? maths class is tough, a message that reenforces the stereotype that women cannot do math (Mattel Offers Trade-In, 1992).From childrens programming in which the few existing female characters typically spend their time reflexion males do things (Feldman & Brown, 1984 Woodman, 1991), to MTV, which routinely pictures women satisfying mens cozy fantasies (Pareles, 1990 Texier, 1990), media reiterate the cultural image of women as dependent, ornamental objects whose immemorial functions are to look earnest, please men, and apprehension quietly on the periphery of life. Media p ull in make outd two images of women safe(p) women and bad ones. These arctic opposites are often juxtaposed against each other to dramatize take issueences in the consequences that get good and bad women.Good women are pretty, deferential, and center on home, family and caring for others. Subordinate to men, they are usually cast as dupes, angels, martyrs, and trust summa cum laude wives and helpmates. Occasionally, women who depart from conventional roles are portrayed positively, but this is done either by making their life hi score lives invisible, as with Claire Huxtable, or by softening and feminizing working women to acquit them more consistent with traditional views of fernininity For instance, in the original script, Cagney and Lacey were conceived as knock-down(prenominal), mature, independent women who took their work seriously and did it hearty.It took 6 years for writers Barbara Corday and Barbara Avedon to trade the script to CBS, and even then they had t o tot to subdue Cagneys and Laceys abilities to ennoble producer Barney Rosenzweig, who complained, These women arent soft enough. These women arent feminine enough (Faludi, 1991, p. 150). While female viewers wrote thousands of letters praising the show, male executives at CBS continued to force writers to make the characters softer, more tender, and less sure of themselves (Faludi, 1991, p. 152).The create of Cagney and Lacey illustrates the medias bias in estimate of women who are traditionally feminine and who are not too able, too powerful, or too confident. The rule seems to be that a cleaning woman may be strong and successful if and only if she also exemplifies traditional stereotypes of femininity-subservience, passivity, beauty, and an individuation think to one or more men. The other image of women the media offer us is the sinfulness sister of the good homebody Versions of this image are the witch, bitch, whore, or nonwoman, who is represented as hard, cold, agg ressive-all of the things a good woman is not supposed to be.Exemplifying the evil woman is Alex in fattenal Attraction, which grossed more than $100 billion in its offset printing four months (Faludi, 1991, p. 113). nurture Alex was only an extreme version of how bad women are principally portrayed. In childrens publications, we encounter witches and mean stepmothers as villains, with beautiful and passive females like Snow White and Sleeping peach as their good counterparts. Prime-time television favorably portrays pretQ nurturing, other- rivet women, such as Claire Huxtable on The Cosby Show, whose move as an attorney neer entered storylines as much as her engagement in family matters. consent in Thirtysomething is an angel, committed to husband Michael and daughter Janey. In the biographies written for each of the characters when the show was in development, all male characters were delineate in harm of their career goals, beliefs, and activities. relys biography c onsisted of one line Hope is married to Michael (Faludi, 1991, p. 162). Hope epitomizes the traditional woman, so much so in fact that in one possibility she refers to herself as June Cleaver and calls Michael Ward, thus reprising the traditional family of the 1950s as somebodyified in yield It to Beaver (Faludi, 1991, p. 61). Meanwhile, prime-time typically represents ambitious, independent women as lonely, embittered spinsters who are counterpoints to good women. Stereotypical Images of Relationships amid Men and Women Given medias stereotypical portrayals of women and men, we shouldnt be surprised to rein that relationships betwixt women and men are similarly depicted in ways that reinforce stereotypes. Four heads demonstrate how media reflect and conjure up traditional ar eye socketments amongst the sexes. Womens dependence/mens independence.Walt Disneys award-winning animated film The Little Mermaid vividly embodies females dependence on males for identity. In this si gn film, the mermaid quite literally 33 1 +3 LIVING WITH MEDIA I capital of Minnesota I wouldnt say this around anyone, but psycheally Id be well-chosen if the media let up a little on us guys. I watch those guys in films and on TV, and I just olfaction inadequate. I mean, Im healthy and I look okay, and Ill probably make a decent salary when I graduate. But I am no stud I cant beat up three guys at once women dont fall dead at my feet I dubiety Ill make i million bucks and I dont cast muscles that ripple.Every time I go to a film, I leave feeling like a wimp. How can any of us guys ginmill up to whats on the bury? I gives up her identity as a mermaid in magnitude to become refreshing to her human l everyplace. In this childrens story, we see a peculiarly open-and-shut illustration of the asymmetrical relationship amid women and men that is more subtly conveyed in other media productions. Even the Smurfs, uncrystallised little beingnesss who have no obvious sex, refle ct the male-female, dominant-submissive roles.The female smurf, unlike her male companions who have names, is called only Smurfette, making her touch on identity a diminutive relation to male smurfs. The male dictum/female subservience pattern that permeates mediated representations of relationships is no accident. outgrowth in 1991, television executives by design and consciously adopted a polity of having dominant male characters in all Saturday cockcrow childrens programming (Carter, 1991). Women, as well as minorities, are cast in champion roles quite a than take ones in both childrens shows and the commercials interspersed within them (OConnor 1989).Analyses of MTV revealed that it portrays females as passive and waiting for mens attention, while males are shown ignoring, exploiting or directing women (Brown, Campbell, & Fisher, 1986). In rap harmony videos, where African-American men and women star men subdue women, whose primary role is as objects of male desires (P areles, 1990 Texier, 1990). sunrise(prenominal)s programs that have male and female hosts routinely cast the female as deferential to her male ally (Craft, 1988 Sanders & Rock, 1988). Commercials, too, manifest power cues that echo the male handedness/female subservience pattern.For instance, men are usually shown positioned above women, and women are more frequently pictured in varying degrees of undress (Masse & Rosenblum 1988 N&o, Hill, Gelbein, & Clark, 1988). such(prenominal) nonverl bal cues represent women as vulnerable and more submissive while men adhere in control. In a brief departure from this pattern, films and television beginning in the 1970s responded to the second wave of libber movement by exhibit women who were independent without being hard, embittered, or without c fall behind relationships. Films such as Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore, Up the Sandbox, The Turning Point, Diary of a sick(p) 34Housewife, and An Unmarried Woman offered realistic portraits of women who want and ground their awn voices independent of men. Judy Daviss film, My BriZZiant Career, curiously embodied this focus by say the story of a woman who chooses work over marriage. During this period, television followed suit, offering viewers prime-time out-of-the-way(prenominal)e such as Maude and The bloody shame Tyler Moore Show, which starred women who were able and achieving in their own rights. One Day at a Time rr which premiered in 1974, was the first prime-time program approximately a divorced woman.By the 198Os, however, traditionally gendered arrangements resurged as the bounce movement against womens liberation movement was embraced by media (Haskell, 1988 Maslin 1990). Thus, film fare in the 1980s included Pretfy Woman the story of a prostitute who becomes a good woman when she is saved from her evil ways by a rigidly stereotypical man, complete with millions to prove his success Meanwhile, tie in Me Up, Tie Me Down trivialized laugh at of women a nd underlined womens dependence on men with a story of a woman who is flinch by a man and colludes in sustaining her bondage.Crossing Delancey showed successful careerist Amy Irving talked into believing she escorts a man to be complete, a theme reprised by Cher in Moonstruck. Television, too, cooperated in reverting women to their traditional roles with characters like Hope in Thirtysomething who minded house and baby as an ultratraditional wife, and even Murphy Brown appoint her career wasnt enough and had a baby Against her protests, Cybill Shepherd, who played Maddie in Moonlighting was constrained to marry briefly on screen which Susan Faludi (1991, p. 57) refers to as part of a hunt down to cow this independent female figure. democratic euphony added its voice with hit songs like Having My Baby, which glorified a woman who pay back herself by motherhood and her relationship to a man. The point is not that having babies or committing to relationships is JOANNE Id like to know who dreams up those commercials that show men as ineffectual to boil water or run a vacuum. Id like to tell them theyre creating monsters. My boyfriend and I agreed to split all chores as when we moved in together. Ha Fat chance of that. He does zilch.When I get on his case, he reminds me of what happened when the father on some show had to take over housework and practically demolished the kitchen. thusly he grins and says, Now, you wouldnt want that, would you? Or worse yet, he throws up Hope or one of the other women on W, and asks me why I cant be as sweet and appurtenant as she is. Its like the altercate on television gives him blanket emancipation for doing nothing. 7. Gendered Medi wrong rather, it is that media virtually require this of women in order to present them positively Media define a very narrow range for womanhood.Joining the contract to restore traditional dominantsubordinate patterns of male-female relationships were snips, which sassy their focu s on womens role as the helpmate and supporter of husbands and families (Peirce, 1990). In 1988, that staple of Americana Good Housekeeping, did its part to resort womens tradi tional roles with a whole ad (The Best in the House n 1988) for its new demographic edition marketed to the new traditionalist woman. A month later, the clip followed this up with a second full-page ad in national newspapers that saluted the new traditionalist woman m with this written matter (The spick-and-span Traditionalist, 1988) She his made her commitment. Her mission create a more meaningful life for herself and her family She is the rude(a) Traditionalist-a contemporary woman who finds her fulfillment in traditional cheers. The long-standing dominant-submissive model for male-female relationships was largely restored in the 1980s. With only rare exceptions, women are still portrayed as dependent on men and subservient to them.As B. Lott (1989, p. 64) points out, it is women who do the laundry and are secretaries to men who own companies. Mens authority/womens incompetence. A second recurrent theme in media representations of relationships is that men are the competent government who save women from their incompetence. Childrens literature vividly implements this motif by dramatis personae females as helpless and males as plan of attack to their rescue. Sleeping Beautys resurrection depends on Prince Charmings kiss, a theme that appears in the increasingly touristed gothic romance novels for adults (Modleski, 1982).One of the most pervasive ways in which media define males as government is in commercials. Women are routinely shown anguishing over dirty floors and bathroom fixtures only to be relieved of their distress when Mr. Clean shows up to tell them how to keep their homes spotless. Even when commercials are aimed at women selling products intended for them, up to 90% of the tim a mans voice is used to explain the value of what is being sold (Basow, 1992, p. 1 61 Bretl & Cantor 1988). utilise male voice-overs reinforces the cultural v&w that men are authorities and women depend on men to tell them what to do.Television further communicates the message that men are authorities and women are not. One means of doing this is holy numbers. As we have seen, men immensely outnumber women in television programming. In addition, the dominance of men as news anchors who inform us of happenings in the mankind underlines their authority (Study Reports brace Bias, 1989). Prime-time television contributes to this image by showing women who indigence to be rescued by men and by presenting women as incompetent more than twice as often as men (Bayer, 1986 Lichter et al. , 1986).Consider the characters in The Jetsons, an animate, television series set in the future. Daughter Judy Jetso is evermore complaining and waiting for others to he1 her, using ploys of failing and flattery to win men attention. The reticuloendothelial systemcuers, a popular ani mated video of the 199Os, features young woman Bianca (whose voice is that of Zs Zsa Gabon fittingly enough), who splits her time evenl) between being in trouble and being grateful to mah characters for rescuing her. These stereotypical repre sentations of males and females reinforce a number o harmful beliefs.They suggest, first, that men are more competent than women. heighten this is the message that a womans power lies in her looks and conventional femininity since that is how females from Sleeping Beauty to Judy Jetson get males to assistant them with their dilemmas (McCauley Thangavelu, & Rozin 1988). Third, these stereotypes underline the requiremen that men must perform, succeed, and keep down in order to be worthy Women as primary caregiverslmen as breadwinners. A third perennial theme in media is that women are caregivers and men are providers.Since the squinch of the 198Os, in fact, this gendered arrangement has been promulgated with regenerate nothing. Once again, as in the 195Os, we see women devoting themselves to acquiring rings off of collars, antique out of their tomentum cerebri, and meats on the table. Corresponding to this is the restatement of mens inability in municipal and nurturing roles. Horovitz (1989), for instance, reports that in commercials men are on a regular alkali the butt of jokes for their ignorance about nutrition, child care, and housework When media portray women who work outside of the home, their career lives typicallyFreceive little or no attention.Although these characters have titles such as lawyer or doctor, they are shown predominantly in their roles as homemakers, mothers, and wives. We see them involved in caring conversations with family and friends and doing things for others, all of which never seem to infringe with their captain responsibilities. This has the potential to cultivate delusive expectations of being Isuperwoman, who does it all without her getting a sensory hairsbreadth out of plac e or being late to a conference. Magazines play a key role in promoting pleasant others as a primary focus of womens lives. K.Peirces (1990) study found that magazines aimed at women stress look good and doing things to please others. Thus, advertising tells women how to be me, only better by discolor their hair to look younger how to lose weight so youll still be attractive to him and how to trick out gourmet meals so hes always glad to come home. Constantly these advertisements emphasize pleasing others, especially men, as central to being a woman, and the message is fortified with the softly veiled warning that if a woman fails to look good and please, her man business leader leave (Rakow, 1992).There is a second, less cognize way in which advertisements contribute to stereotypes of women as focused 1 + LIVING WITH MEDIA on others and men as focused on work. Writing in 1990, Gloria Steinem, editor of Ms. , revealed that advertisers control some to most of the fill in mag azines. In exchange for placing an ad, a company receives complimentary copy which is one or more articles that increase the market address of its product.So a soup company that takes out an ad might be given a three-page story on how to prepare meals using that brand of soup likewise, an ad for hair coloring products might be accompanied by interviews with famous women who choose to dye their hair. Thus, the message of advertisers is multiplied by magazine content, which readers often mistakenly take for granted is ,independent of advertising. Advertisers support media, and they exert a powerful influence on what is presented. To understand the prevalence of traditional gender roles in programming, magazine copy, and other media, we need only ask what is in the best interests of advertisers.They want to rat shows that create or expand markets for their products. Media images of women as sex objects, devoted homemakers, and mothers buttress the very roles in which the majority of consuming takes place. To live up to these images, women have to buy cosmetics and other personal care products, diet aids, food, dwelling cleaners, utensils and appliances, clothes and toys for children, and so on. In short, it is in advertisers interests to support programming and copy that feature women in traditional roles.In a recent psychoanalysis, Lana Rakow (1992) demonstrated that much advertising is oppressive to women and is very difficult to resist, even when one is a committed womens liberationist. Womens role in the home and mens role outside of it are built by newspapers and news programming. Both emphasize mens independent activities and, in fact, define news almost only when as stories about and by men (Study Reports conjure Bias, 1989). Stories about men focus on work and/or their achievements (Luebke, 1989), reiterating the cultural message that men are supposed to do, perform.Meanwhile the few stories about women almost invariably focus on their roles as wives, mothers, and homemakers (Study Reports Sex Bias, 1989). Even stories about women who are in the news because of achievements and professional activities typically dwell on marriage, family life, and other aspects of womens traditional role (Foreit et al. , 1980). Women as victims and sex objectslmen as aggressors. A final examination theme in mediated representations of relationships between women and men is representation of women as contentedness to mens versed desires.The badinage of this representation is that the very qualities women are support to develop (beauty, sexiness, passivity, and powerlessness) in order to go out cultural ideals of femininity contribute to their victimization. Also, the qualities that men are urged to exemplify (aggressiveness, dominance, innerity, and strength) are very(a) to those linked to revilement of women. It is no analogy that all but one of the women nominative for Best Actress in the 36 1988 honorary society Awards played a victim (Faludi, 1991, p. 138). Women are portrayed alternatively either as decorative objects, who must attract a man o be valuable, or as victims of mens intimate impulses. Either way, women are specify by their bodies and how men treat them. Their independent identities and endeavors are irrelevant to how they are represented in media, and their abilities to resist developing by others are obscured. This theme, which was somewhat toned down during the 197Os, returned with vigor in the 1980s as the backlash permeated media. According to S. A. Basow (1992, p. 160), since 1987 there has been a resurgence of male gibbosity, pretty female sidekicks, female homemakers. Advertising in magazines also communicates the message that women are knowledgeable objects.While men are seldom pictured nude or even partially unclothed, women habitually are. Advertisements for makeup, colognes, hair products, and clothes often show women attracting men because they got the right products and ma de themselves irresistible. Stars on prime-time and films, who are beautiful and dangerously thin, perpetuate the idea that women must literally starve themselves to dying to win mens interest (Silverstein et al. , 1986). Perhaps the most glaring utilisations of portrayals of women as sex objects and men as informal aggressors guide in music videos as shown on MTV and many other stations.Typically, females are shown jump provocatively in stint and/or revealing clothing as they try to gain mens attention (Texier, 1990). Frequently, men are seen coercing women into knowledgeable activities and/or physically abusing them. Violence against women is also condoned in many recent films. R. Warshaw (1991) describe that cinematic presentations of flubs, especially acquaintance bumbles, are not presented as power-motivated violations of women but rather as strictly cozy encounters.Similarly, others (Cowan, Lee, Levy, & Snyder, 1988 Cowan & OBrien, 1990) have found that male dominanc e and sexual exploitation of women are themes in virtually all R-and X-rated films, which almost anyone may now rent for home viewing. These media images drool to extremes long-standing cultural views of masculinity as aggressive and femininity as passive. They also make furiousness seem sexy (D. Russell, 1993). In so doing, they recreate these limited and limiting perceptions in the thinking of some other generation of women and men. In sum, we have identified rudimentary stereotypes and relationships between the two.IndividualIy and in combination these images sustain and reinforce affectionately constructed views of the genders, views that have dependant both men and women and that appear to ramificationitimise destructive behaviors ranging from anorexia to battering. Later in this chapter, we allow probe more closely how media versions of gender are linked to problems such as these. . . . 7. Gendered Media pathologizing the Human Body One of the most damaging consequenc es of medias images of women and men is that these images elevate us to perceive normal bodies and normal physical functions as problems.Its apprehensible to wish we weighed a little more or less, had better developed muscles, and never had pimples or cramps. What is neither reasonable nor healthy, however, is to regard healthy, functional bodies as abnormal and unacceptable. Yet this is precisely the negative self-image cultivated by media portrayals of women and men. Because sex sells products (Muro, 1989), sexual and erotic images are the single most prominent diagnostic of advertising (Courtney & Whipple, 1983).Further, advertising is increasingly objectifying men, which probably accounts for the rise in mens weight training and cosmetic operating theatre Media, and especially advertising, are equal hazard dehumanizers of both sexes. not only do media induce us to think we should measure up to artificial standards, but they bring forward us to see normal bodies and incar nate functions as pathologies. A good example is the medias construction of premenstrual syndrome (premenstrual syndrome). Historically, premenstrual syndrome has not been a problem, but belatedly it has been declared a disease (Richmond-Abbott, 1992).In fact, a good deal of search (Parlee, 1973, 1987) indicates that premenstrual syndrome displaceed very few women in earlier eras. After the war, when women were no all-night needed in the work force, assurance changed and the term premenstrual tension was coined (Greene & Dalton, 1953) and used to define women as inferior employees. In 1964, only one article on PMS appeared in 1988-1989, a full(a) of 425 were published (Tavris, 1992, p. 140). Drug companies funded look for and advancement since selling PMS meant selling their remedies for the saucily created problem.Behind the hoopla, however, there was and is little evidence to support the currently widespread belief that PMS is a serious problem for a significant portion of the female population. Facts aside, the myth has caught on, carrying in its wake many women and men who now perceive normal periodical changes as abnormal and as making women unfit for positions of leadership and authority other consequence of specify PMS as a serious problem most women suffer is that it leads to labeling women in general as deviant and unreliable (Unger & Crawford, 1992), an image that fortifies long-held biases against women.Menopause is similiarly pathologized. Carol Tavris (1992, p. 159) notes that books describe climacteric in terms of deprivation, deficiency, loss, shedding, and sloughing language that defines a normal process as negative. Like menstruation, menopause is represented as abnormalcy and disease, an image that probably contributes to the negative attitudes toward it in America. The encompass of the may 25, 1992, bleaksweek featured an abstract draft of a maneuver in the conformation of a womans head. The tree was stripped of all leaves, making it regretful and barren.Across the picture was the regale-story headline Menopause. From first glance, menopause was represented negatively-as desolate and unfruitful. The article focused primarily on the problems and losses of menopause. totally toward the end did readers find reports from anthropologists, whose cross-cultural research revealed that in many cultures menopause is not an issue or is viewed positively Women in whitethornan villages and the Greek island of Evia do not understand questions about . hot flashes and depression, which are symptoms often associated with menopause in Western societies (Menopause, 1992, p. 7). These are not part of their throw in cultures that do not define a normal change in women as a pathology Because Western countries, especially America, scar menopause and define it as the end of womanhood, Western women are likely to feel distressed and unproductive about the completion of menstruation (Greer, 1992). Advertising is very g ood in convince us that we need products to solve problems we are unaware of until some clever public relations campaign persuades us that something inseparable about us is real unnatural and unacceptable.Media have convert millions of American women that what every medical ejaculate considers normal body weight is really abnormal and cause for serious dieting (Wolf, 1991). Similarly, gray hair, which naturally develops with age, is now something all of us, especially women, are supposed to cover up. Facial lines, which indicate a person has lived a life and accumulated experiences, can be removed so that we look younger-a prime goal in a culture that glorifies youth (Greer, 1992).Body hair is another(prenominal) interesting case of medias convincing us that something normal is really abnormal. Beginning in 1915, a sustained merchandise campaign informed women that underarm hair was unsightly and socially incorrect. (The campaign against leg hair came later. ) Harpers Bazaar , an upmarket magazine, launched the crusade against underarm hair with a record of a woman whose embossed arms revealed clean-shaven armpits. Underneath the photograph was this caption Summer dress and modem dancing combine to make necessary the removal of objectionable hair (Adams, 1991)Within a few years, ads promoting removal of underarm hair appeared in most womens magazines, and by 1922, razors and depilatories were firmly ensconced in middle America as evidenced by their comprehension in the womens section of the Sears Roebuck catalog. Media efforts to pathologize natural physiology can be very serious. As we have seen in prior chapters, the emphasis on excessive thinness contributes to severe and potentially lethal dieting, especially in Caucasian women (Spitzack, 1993).Nonetheless, the top female models in 1993 are skeletal, more so than in recent years (Leland & Leonard, 1993). Many womens natural breast size exceeded the cultural ideal in the 1960s when thin, angula te bodies were represented as ideal. Thus, breast decrement surgeries rose. By the 198Os, cultural standards changed 37 1 6 LIVING WITH MEDIA to define large breasts as the feminine ideal. Consequently, breast augmentation surgeries accelerated, and fully 80% of implants were for cosmetic reasons (The. Implant Circus, 1992).In an effort to ascertain the cultural standards of beautiful bodies, many women suffered unnecessary surgery, which led to disfigurement, loss of feeling, and sometimes death for women when silicone implants were later linked to fatal conditions. Implicitlp media argue that our natural state is abnormal and objectionable, a premise that is infixed to sell products and advice for improving ourselves. Accepting media messages about our bodies and ourselves, however, is not inevitable We can reflect on the messages and resist those that are unconnected and/or harmful.We would probably all be considerably happier and healthier if we became more precise in analy zing medias communication about how we should look, be, and act. Normalizing Violence Against Women harmful, while sexually cherry substantives appear to be (Donnerstein, Linz, & Penrod, 1987). Pornographic films are a big business, outnumbering other films by 3 to 1 and grossing over $365 million a year in the join States alone (Wolf, 1991). The primary themes characteristic of carbon black as a genre are extremes of those in media generally sex, fierceness, and domination of one person by another, usually women by men (Basow, 1992, p. 17). more than 80% of X-rated films in one study included scenes in which one or more men dominate and exploit one or more women within these films, three-fourths portray physical encroachment against women, and fully half(a) explicitly depict rapine (Cowan et al. , 1988). That these are linked to viewers MYTHS Myth pillage is a sexual act that resuits from sexual urges. Rapists are abnormal. AND FACTS Fact ABOUT thwart Since we have seen that media positively portray aggression in males and passivity in females, its important to ask whether media messages contribute to abuse of and violence against women.There is by now fairly convincing evidence (Hansen & Hansen, 1988) that motion picture to sexual violence through media is linked to greater tolerance, or even approval, of violence. For instance, I? Dieter (1989) found a strong relationship between females viewing of sexually violent MTV and their acceptation of sexual violence as part of normal relationships. He reasoned that the more they observe positive portrayals of sexual violence, the more likely women are to perceive this as natural in relationships with men and the less likely they are to object to violence or to defend themselves from it.In short, Dieter suggests that heavy exposure to media tiolence within relationships tends to normalize it, so that abuse and violence are considered natural parts of love and sex. Dieters study demonstrates a direct link between sexual aggression and one popular form of media, MTV. Research on porno further corroborates connections between exposure to portrayals of violence against women and leaveingness to engage in or accept it in ones own relationships (Russell, 1993). out front we discuss this research, however, we need to clarify what we volition mean by the term pornography, since defining it is a matter of some controversy.Pornography is not simply sexually explicit material. To attain pornography from erotica, we might focus on mutual agreement and mutual benefit. If we use these criteria, pornography may be defined as materials that favorably show control and degradation of a person such as presenting sadistic behaviors as pleasurable, brutalizing and twinge as enjoyable, and forced sex or abuse as positive. Erotica, on the other hand, depicts consensual sexual activities that are want by and pleasurable to all parties involved (MacKinnon, 1987).These distinctions are important , since it has been well established that graphic sexual material itself is not 38 Rape is an aggressive act used to dominate another. Rapists have not been shown to differ from nonrapists in personality, psychology, adjustment, or involvment in interpersonal relationships. Eighty percent to 90% of bollocks ups are committed by a person known to the victim (Allgeier, 1987). Most sacks occur between strangers. Most rapists are African-Ameri- More than three-fourths of all can men, and most victims scandalises occur within races, not are Caucasian women. between races.This myth reflects racism. The way a woman dresses affects the likeliness she will be outraged. The majority-up to 90%-of rapes are plan in advance and without knowledge of how the victim will dress (Scully, 1990). The majority of rapes are never reported (Koss, Cidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987). Less than 10% of rape reports are judged false, the same as for other violent crimes. The incidence of rape varies across cult ures. It is highest in societies with ideologies of male dominance and a disregard for nature it is last-place in cultures that respect women and feminine set Griffin 1981).False reports of rapes are frequent. Rape is a universal problem own tendencies to engage in sexual violence is no longer disputable. According to recent research (Demare, Briere, & Lips, 1988 Donnerstein et al. , 1987 Malamuth & Briere, 1986), viewing sexually violent material tends to in- 7. Gendered Media crease mens beliefs in rape myths, raises the likelihood thnt men will admit they might themselves commit rape, and desensitizes men to rape, thereby making forced sex more acceptable to them.This research suggests that repeated exposure to pornography influences how men think about rape by transforming it from an unacceptable behavior with which they do not determine into one they find acceptable and enticing. Not surprisingly, the single best predictor of rape is the circulation of pomographic materials t hat glorify sexual force and exploitation (Baron & Straus, 1989). This is alarming when we realize that 18 million men buy a total of 165 different pornographic magazines every month in the joined States (Wolf, 1991, p. 79).It is well documented that the incidence of reported rape is rising and that an increasing number of men regard forced sex as acceptable (Brownmiller, 1993 Soeken & Danirosch, 1986). Studies of men (Allgeier, 1987 Koss & booty, 1988 Koss, Dinero, Seibel, & Cox, 1988 Koss Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987 Lisak & Roth, 1988) hav produced shocking findings While the majority of college men report not having raped anyone, a stunning 50% admit they have coerced, manipulated, or pressured a woman to have sex or have had sex with her after getting her drunk 1 in 12 men at some colleges has act in behaviors meeting the legal interpretation of rape r attempted rape over 80% of men who admitted to acts that meet the definition of rape did not believe they had committed rape a nd fully deuce-ace of college men said they would commit rape if they believed nobody would find out. Contrary to popular belief, we also know that men who do commit rape are not mentally abnormal. They are indistinguishable from other men in terms of psychological adjustment and health, emotional wellbeing, heterosexual relationships, and frequence of sexual experiences (Segel-Evans, 1987).The only established contravention between men who are sexually violent and men who are not is that the former have hypermasculine attitudes and self-concepts-their approval of male dominance and sexual rights is even stronger than that of nonrapists (Allgeier, 1987 Koss & Dinero 1988. Lisak & Roth, 1988 Wood, 1993a). The difference b&ween sexually violent men and others appears to be only a matter of degree. We also know something about women who are victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence.Between 33% and 66% of all women have been sexually abused before scope age 18 (Clutter, 19 90 Koss, 1990). The majority of college women-up to 75%-say they have been coerced into some type of outcast sex at least once (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987 Poppen & Segal 1988 Warshaw, 1988). A third of women who survivi *ape scan suicide (Koss et al. , 1988). It is also clear that the psychic trauma of rape is not confined to the time of its actual occurrence.The feelings that accompany rape and sexual assault-fear, a sense of degradation and shame, anger, powerlessness, and depression-endure far beyond the act itself (Brownmiller, 1975 Wood 1992b 19930. Most victims of rape continue to deal v&h the emotional aftermath of rape for the rest of their lives (Marhoefer-Dvorak, Resick, Hutter, & Girelli, 1988). What causes rape, now the fastest growing violent crime in the United States (Doyle, 1989 Soeken & Damrosch, 1986)?According to experts (Costin & Schwartz 1987 Koss & Dinero, 1988 Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski 1987 Scott & Tetreault, 1987 Scully, 1990), rape is not the term ination of psychological deviance or seditious lust. Although rape involves sex, it is not motivated by sexual desire. Authorities agree that rape is an aggressive act used to dominate and show power over another person, be it a man over a woman or one man over another as in prison settings where rape is one way inmates brU1 talize one another and establish a power hierarchy (Rideau & Sinclair, 1982).Instead, attach evidence suggests that rape is a inevitable outcome of views of men, women, and relationships between the sexes that our society inculcates in members (Brownmiller, 1975. Costin & Schwartz, 1987 Scott & Tetreault, 1987 South & Felson, 1990). Particularly compelling support for the cultural basis of rape comes from cross-cultural studies (Griffin, 1981. Sanday, 1986), which reveal that rape is extremely rar in cultures that value women and feminine qualities and that have ideologies that promote harmonious interdependence among humans and between them and the natural w orld.Rape is most common in countries, like the United States, that have ideologies of male supremacy and dominance and a offense of women and nature. Cultural values communicated to us by family schools, media, and other sources constantly encourage us to believe men are superior, men should dominate women, male aggression is acceptable as a means of attaining what is wanted, women are passive and should defer to men, and women are sex objects. In concert these beliefs legitimize violence and aggression agains women.While the majority of media communication may not be pornographic, it does echo in somewhat muted forms the predominant themes of pornography sex, violence and male domination of women. As we have seen, thesi same motifs permeate media that are part of our daily lives, which generally portray males as dominating in number, status, authority, and will. self-coloured violence toward women punctuates movies, television-including childrens programming-rock music, and music videos desensitise men and women alike to the unnatural ness and unacceptability of force and brutality between human beings.Thus, the research that demonstrates connections between sex-stereotypical media and bridal of sexual violence is consistent with that showing relationships between more extreme, pornographic media and acceptance of and use of violence. . . . 39 REFERENCES Adams, C. (1991, April). The straight dope. triangle Comic Review, p. 26. ABgeier, E. R. (1987). C oercive versus consensual sexual interactions Washington, DC American Psychological Association. so,+. stark naked Haven, CT Yale Universitv press. Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender Stereo-&& and roles (3rd ed. ). 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